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The Path Not Taken: The Anarchist Alternative in Chinese Socialism, 1921–1927*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 December 2008

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Until the late 1920s, anarchism was still a significant presence in Chinese radical thinking and activity, and till the middle of the decade, gave serious competition to the Communists. The essay discusses the nature of the anarchist movement in China, anarchist criticism of Bolshevik Marxism, and anarchist revolutionary strategy and activity during 1921–1927. It argues that while anarchists were quite innovative with regard to revolutionary strategy, their repudiation of organized power deprived them of the ability to coordinate revolutionary activity on a national scale, and what success they achieved remained local and short-lived. Indeed, the Communists were able to make better use of anarchist tactics than were the anarchists themselves. Anarchist critique of power rested on a denial of a center to society (and history). While this undercut the anarchists' ability to organize the revolutionary movement, it is also revealing of a basic problem of socialist revolution: the problem of democracy. In ignoring the anarchist critique of power, the successful revolutionaries deprived themselves of a critical perspective on the problem of socialist revolution, and were left at the mercy of the new structures of power that they brought into existence. Hence the importance of recalling anarchism.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis 1989

References

1 Since anarchists and Marxists both claimed “communism” for their own, I distinguish the two below by capitalizing Marxist/Bolshevik Communism.

2 “Shishedi yiqu he dagang” (the Goals and Program of Truth Society), Banyue (Half Moon), 14 (15 02 1921)Google Scholar, in Mouchun, Ge et al. (eds), Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang ziliao xuan (Selections of Anarchist Thought) 2 vols (Beijing, 1984), II, pp. 527530, p. 529.Google Scholar

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6 Ibid., p. 934. In an earlier work, I referred to Wu Zhihui as editor of this journal. Zheng Peigang, who was also involved with the journal, confirms Liu's recollection that Liang was the editor. See Peigang, Zheng, “Wuzhengfu zhuyi zai Zhongguodi ruogan shishi” (Some Facts on Anarchism in China), in Guangzhou wenshi ziliao (Historical and Literary Materials on Guangzhou), 1 (04 1962), pp. 171208, p. 185.Google Scholar

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8 Zheng, , “Wuzhengfu zhuyi”, pp. 191192.Google Scholar

9 Dirlik, Arif, Origins of Chinese Communism (New York, 1989), for a more detailed discussion of these activities.Google Scholar

10 “Lingshuang zhi mojun han” (A Letter from Lingshuang), Chunlei yuekan (Spring Thunder Monthly), 1 (10 10 1921), pp. 96120, p. 105.Google Scholar Huang himself displayed a peculiar uncertainty toward Bolshevism at this time. In its 1 July 1922 issue, Xin qingnian (New Youth), by then a communist organ, published a letter from Huang to Chen where the former wrote: “Although I have been uncertain in the past, I have come to believe firmly that this method [i.e. the dictatorship of the proletariat] is the only possible method of social revolution at the present; henceforth, I will strive to achieve humanity under your leadership.” Until his open letter appeared in 1923, anarchists feared that they had lost one of their leaders to communism. Huang gradually dropped out of anarchist ranks after he went to the US.

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13 This could also be translated as Truth Society. I use Reality Society here to distinguish it from the other Truth Society (Shishe).

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16 “Tongzhi xiaoxi” (News of Comrades), Jingzhe (Spring Festival; literally, “the awakening of insects”), 1 (1924).Google Scholar This journal was a continuation of Chunlei, after the latter was shut down. See also Zheng, , “Wuzhengfu zhuyi”, pp. 204206.Google Scholar

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18 Meijiu, Jing, “Zuian” (Account of Crimes), in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (ed.), Xinhai geming ziliao leipian (Materials on the 1911 Revolution) (Beijing, 1981), pp. 54157.Google Scholar

19 These activities may be gleaned from the “News of Comrades” sections published in anarchist journals. For a sample from People's Tocsin, see Chonghou, Zhao et al. (ed.), Wusi shiqidi shetuan (Societies of the May Fourth Period), 4 vols (Beijing, 1979), IV, pp. 275280.Google Scholar

20 For a discussion of these relationships in detail, see Dirlik, , Origins, chs 2 and 10.Google Scholar

21 Avrich, Paul, The Russian Anarchists (Princeton, 1978), pp. 3940.Google Scholar

22 Huang, , “Letter”, pp. 110111.Google Scholar

23 Bi, , “Wo xinyang wuzhengfu zhuyi”, pp. 10251026.Google Scholar

24 Baopu, Qin, “A Memoir of My Meeting Ms. Goldman in Russia in My Early Days” (Original Chinese)Google Scholar, Letter to Prof. Zhe, Lu (1987?).Google Scholar I am grateful to Falk, Candace (ed.), “The Emma Goldman Papers”Google Scholar, University of California-Berkeley, for sharing with me this letter, as well as other materials on Goldman's relationships with Chinese anarchists.

25 For a more detailed discussion of these polemics, see Dirlik, , Origins, ch. 10.Google Scholar

26 Huang, , “Letter”, p. 110.Google Scholar Bi also heard this in person from Mme. Kropotkin, , “Wo xinyang wuzhengfu zhuyi”, p. 1025.Google Scholar

27 “Fandui anbu xishou xuanyan” (Declaration Opposing Anarchist-Bolshevik Cooperation), Xuehui, 109 (5 02 1923)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 665666, p. 665.Google Scholar

28 Ou, , “Da Chen Duxiu”, p. 658.Google Scholar

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30 “Wuzhengfu gongchanpai yu jichan paizhi qidian” (Differences Between Anarcho-communists and Collectivists), Minsheng (People's Voice), 30 (03 1921)Google Scholar, in Ge et al., Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 565566.Google Scholar

31 Huang, , “Letter”, p. 113.Google Scholar

32 “Iguo gongchan zhuyi shibaizhi yuanyin jiqi buqiudi fangfa” (The Failure of Communism in Russia and the Way to Salvage It), Gongyu (After Work) (09 1922)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 595601, p. 598.Google Scholar

33 Jianbo, , “Lun wuchan jieji zhuanzheng” (On the Dictatorship of the Proletariat), Xuedeng, 20–22 (1924). See no. 20, p. 1.Google Scholar

34 Ibid., see also Li, “Zailun wuchan jieji”.

35 Jianbo, , “Lun wuchan jieji zhuanzheng”; Baopu, “Makesi zhuyi piping” (Critique of Marxism), Xuedeng, 19 (1924).Google Scholar

36 Ou, , “Da Chen Duxiu”, p. 663Google Scholar; Sanbo, , “Iguo gongchan zhuyi”, p. 599.Google Scholar

37 Baopu, , “Xin jingji zhengce” (New Economic Policy), Xuedeng (0102 1924)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 854859.Google Scholar

38 Huang, , “Letter”, p. 112Google Scholar; Sanbo, , “Iguo gongchan zhuyi”, pp. 596597.Google Scholar

39 The discussion below is based on a long essay by Zhi, Lu, “Makesi zhuyi piping”Google Scholar (Critique of Marxism) which was a combination restatement/translation of Cherkezov's work. Lu says in his postscript that the essay was first published in Minzhong. The version used here is from part 5 (“Makesi zhuyidi pochan” (Bankruptcy of Marxism)) of Ziyou congshu (Compendium on Freedom), pp. 151228.Google Scholar This was a valuable collection of anarchist writings from the twenties (mostly translations) published in 1928 by the Equality Society (Pingshe) in San Francisco. The Compendium was first published in Shanghai by the Freedom Bookstore (Ziyou shudian) in 1927.

40 Tianxin, (Zhongjiu, Shen), “Gao gongchandangdi qingnian” (To Communist Youth), Minzhong (People's Tocsin) 2.3 (25 03 1927), pp. 205222.Google Scholar

41 Yibo, Mao, “Makesizhi ‘ziben jizhong’ di miushuo” (The Erroneousness of Marx's ‘Concentration of Capital’), Xuedeng (12 12 1925).Google Scholar

42 “‘Jieji zhanzheng’ he ‘pingmin zhuanzheng’ guoshi yongyu shehui geming ma?” (Are ‘Class War’ and ‘Dictatorship of the Common People’ of Use in Social Revolution?), Minsheng, 13 (07 1921)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 587590, p. 590.Google Scholar A good discussion of the difficulties of class analysis was offered by Bibo, (Xiushao, Bi), “Jieji douzheng” (Class Struggle), Geming zhoubao (Revolution Weekly), 18 (1927), pp. 244249.Google Scholar

43 Ou, , “Da Chen Duxiu”, pp. 662663. Other prominent proponents of class struggle were Liang Bingxian, and the Sichuan anarchists Lu Jianbo and Mao Yibo.Google Scholar

44 Lu, , “Makesi zhuyi piping”, pp. 194203.Google Scholar

45 “Fakan ci” (Opening Statement), Geming zhoubao, 1 (07 1927), pp. 317, p. 13.Google Scholar Shen was the editor and, according to Biu Xiushao, wrote this statement. He had earlier opposed alliance with the Guomindang.

46 “Fangwen Fan Tianjun xianshengdi jilu” (Record of a Visit with Mr. Fan Tianjun), Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 10391048, p. 1043.Google Scholar

47 Feigan, (Ba Jin), “Aiguo zhuyi yu Zhongguoren dao xingfudi lu” (Patriotism and the Chinese Path to Happiness), Jingqun (Warning to the Masses), 1 (1 09 1921)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 541543Google Scholar; (Wei), , Huilin, , “Shehui geming yu guomin geming” (Social Revolution and National Revolution), Minzhong, 2.1 (01 1927), pp. 1121Google Scholar; Tianxin, (Zhongjiu, Shen), “Gao guojia zhuyizhe” (To Nationalists), Minzhong, 2.2 (02 1927), pp. 100105.Google Scholar

48 “Zhen Tian yu Faguo wuzhengfu zhuyizhe Gelafudi tongxin” (Zhen Tian [Bi Xiushao's] Correspondence with the French Anarchist Grave), Minzhong, 2.4–5 (05 1927)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 729734.Google Scholar

49 Yibo, (Yibo, Mao), “Ping Chen Duxiu xianshengdi jiangyan lu” (Critique of Mr. Chen Duxiu's Collection of Speeches), Xuedeng, 20 (11 1924).Google Scholar

50 Hudson Collection (The Hoover Institute), Package 6, part 2.

51 “Guangzhou zhenshe xuanyan” (The Declaration of Guangzhou Reality Society), Chunlei, 1 (10 10 1923), pp. 15, p. 4.Google Scholar

52 “Junshe xuanyan” (Declaration of Equality Society), Banyue, 21 (1 01 1921)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 534537, p. 535.Google Scholar

53 Bibo, (Xiushao, Bi), “Women shishei?” (Who Are We?), Geming zhoubao, 16–18 (1927). See 16, pp. 161175, p. 172.Google Scholar

54 Zhihui, (Zhihui, Wu), “Jinian Shifu xiansheng” (Remembering Mr. Shifu), Minzhong, 2.3 (03 1927), pp. 161163, p. 162.Google Scholar

55 Sanmu, (Shaoling, Li), “Wuzhengfu zhuyi yanjiu” (Examination of Anarchism), Chunlei, 2 (10 12 1923), pp. 34.Google Scholar

56 Baopu, , “Wuzhengfudang geming fanglue” (Strategy of Anarchist Revolution)Google Scholar, in Ziyou congshu, part 3 (“gemingzhi lu” (the Path of Revolution)), pp. 359360.Google Scholar

57 (Mao) Yibo, , “Geming zhongzhi zhishi jieji yu wuchan jieji” (Intellectual and Proletarian Classes in the Revolution), Minfeng (People's Vanguard), 2.1 (13 02 1927)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 795797.Google Scholar Mao, with the Sichuan anarchists Lu Jianbo, his spouse Deng Tianyu, and Fan Tianjun from Guangzhou was among the leaders of the Young Anarchist Federation which represented the anarchist Left in the late twenties.

58 Xintian, (Zhongjiu, Shen), “Duiyu kai dahuidi yijian” (Views on a National Congress), Ziyou ren (Free People), 3 (05 1924)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 758761.Google Scholar

59 Shengbai, Ou, “Zhongguo muqiandi zhengzhi wenti ruhe jiejue”, Minzhong, 1.5 (10 07 1923)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 634636, pp. 635636.Google Scholar

60 “‘Jieji zhanzheng’ he ‘pingmin zhuanzheng’”, p. 590.Google Scholar

61 “Wuzhengfu gongchandang Shanghaibu xuanyan”, Ziyou ren, 3 (05 1924)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 751757, p. 753.Google Scholar

62 Shuji, Kosugi, “Shanghai koodan rengookai to Shanghai no roodoo undoo” (The Federation of Shanghai Syndicates and the Shanghai Labor Movement), Rekishigaku Kenkyu (Historical Studies), 392 (01 1973), pp. 1473, pp. 1819.Google Scholar

63 For the Federation, see Chesneaux, Jean, The Chinese Labor Movement, 1919–1927 (Stanford, 1968), pp. 223227, 252259Google Scholar, as well as Kosugi. For the anarchist involvement, see below.

64 Daneng, , ‘Xiangcun yundong tan’ (On the Agrarian Movement), Chunlei, 2 (10 12 1923), p. 2.Google Scholar

65 Jing, , “Zuian”, pp. 145, 147.Google Scholar

66 Nongcun yundong tongmeng guiyue caoan”, Xuehui, 236 (29 06 1923)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 673674.Google Scholar

67 Huang, , “Letter”, p. 118Google Scholar; Jianhun, , “Bagong yu jugeng” (Strikes and Seizing Land), Minzhong, 1.5 (10 07 1923)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 632633.Google Scholar

68 “Shaanbei nongshe yundongdi xuanyan” (Declaration of the Village Commune Movement in Northern Shaanxi), Chunlei, 1 (10 10 1923), pp. 141143, p. 142.Google Scholar

69 Sanmu, (Shaoling, Li), “Mintuan geming” (Revolution of People's Militia), Minzhong, 1.12 (07 1925)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 704710, pp. 709710.Google Scholar

70 “Fangwen Fan Tianjun”, pp. 10401041, p. 1045.Google Scholar

71 Shixin, Liu, “Guanyu wuzhengfu zhuyi”, pp. 937 gives a brief account of these methods.Google Scholar

72 “Tongzhi xiaoxi”, Jingzhe, 1 (1924).Google Scholar

73 Linyi, , “Sinian qian Zhongguodi Laodong daxue” (The Chinese Labor University of Four Years Ago), Geming zhoubao, 29–30 (12 1927). See no. 29, p. 286.Google Scholar

74 Daneng, , “Xiangcun yundong tan”, pp. 45.Google Scholar

75 “Shaanbei nongshe yundongdi xuanyan”, p. 142.Google Scholar

76 (Liang) Bingxian, , “Gemingdi gongtuan” (Revolutionary Syndicates), Minzhong, 1.7 (10 03 1924)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 701704.Google Scholar

77 See the stages of revolution Shaoling, Li outlines in “Mintuan geming”, pp. 707710.Google Scholar

78 Tie, Zheng (Xiushao, Bi), “Zhong women zijidi yuandi” (Cultivating Our Own Garden), Minzhong, 2.2 (02 1927), pp. 8183.Google Scholar

79 Bi, , “Wo xinyang wuzhengfu zhuyi”, pp. 10301031.Google Scholar

80 Yibo, Huang, “Wuzhengfu zhuyizhe zai Guangzhou”, pp. 514.Google Scholar

81 Si, (Siweng, Wang), “Hewei er xinyang wuzhengfu gongchan zhuyi” (What are Anarcho-communist Beliefs), Chunlei, 1 (10 10 1923), pp. 519.Google Scholar Needless to say those arguments also distinguished the anarchists from anti-political social conservatives, on the one hand, and individual-oriented libertarians, on the other hand.

82 Kropotkin, Peter, Revolutionary Pamphlets, Baldwin, Roger N. (ed.) (New York, 1968), pp. 114115, p. 117.Google Scholar

83 Zheng, , “Wuzhengfu zhuyi”, p. 199.Google Scholar