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‘Shunning’ and ‘seeking’ membership: Rethinking citizenship regimes in the European constitutional space
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 July 2019
Abstract:
This article explores parallels between the ‘shunning’ and ‘seeking’ of membership of the EU in the context of Brexit and stalled enlargement in south-east Europe, via a focus on the partial, fragmentary and contested governance of citizenship. The case studies place Union citizenship into a wider political and socio-economic context, demonstrating its central importance as an enabler of personal freedom. At the same time, they highlight how the denial or removal of Union citizenship can engender individual strategies to recover lost or denied benefits. From the analysis, parallels emerge between Union citizenship and national citizenship; both offer a promise of equality, but a reality of differentiation and inequality. At the same time, by delving deep into the case studies, it proves possible to illuminate the complex and often ‘messy’ constitutional edifice of the European Union, involving sometimes contradictory processes of Europeanisation and de-Europeanisation affecting citizenship regimes at all levels.
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Jo Shaw holds the Salvesen Chair of European Institutions at the University of Edinburgh and a part-time professorship in the New Social Research Programme at Tampere University. jo.shaw@ed.ac.uk
References
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113 ‘Net Migration from EU to UK Falls 70% since Brexit vote’ Financial Times (28 February 2019) available at: <https://www.ft.com/content/960b4672-3b3e-11e9-b72b-2c7f526ca5d0>; migration statistics for the UK are available at: <https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/internationalmigration>.
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116 Cf Commission Report on Investor Citizenship (n 74).
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119 Case C-165/16 Lounes v SSHD ECLI:EU:C:2017:862. For commentary see D de Groot, ‘Free Movement of Dual EU Citizens’ (2018) 3 European Papers 1075.
120 Case C-135/08 Rottmann v Freistaat Bayern ECLI:EU:C:2010:104.
121 See the judgment of Laws LJ, at para 43, in G1 v Secretary of State for the Home Department, [2012] EWCA Civ 867.
122 For suggestions, see Schrauwen, A, ‘(Not) Losing out from Brexit’ (2017) 1 Europe and the World 1;Google Scholar Mindus, P, European Citizenship after Brexit: Freedom of Movement and Rights of Residence (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2017);CrossRefGoogle Scholar Cambien, N, ‘Residence Rights for EU Citizens and Their Family Members: Navigating the New Normal’ (2018) 3 European Papers 1333.Google Scholar The adoption of a human rights approach would require a significant shift on the part of the CJEU, given the limitations of the approach of the European Court of Human Rights to nationality issues: Dembour, M, ‘Ramadan v. Malta: When Will the Strasbourg Court Understand That Nationality Is a Core Human Rights Issue?’ Strasbourg Observers (22 July 2016) available at: <https://strasbourgobservers.com/2016/07/22/ramadan-v-malta-when-will-the-strasbourg-court-understand-that-nationality-is-a-core-human-rights-issue/>.Google Scholar
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124 McCrea, R, ‘Brexit EU Citizenship Rights of UK Nationals and the Court of Justice’ UK Constitutional Law Blog (8 February 2018) available at: <https://ukconstitutionallaw.org/2018/02/08/ronan-mccrea-brexit-eu-citizenship-rights-of-uk-nationals-and-the-court-of-justice/>; van der Mei (n 110).Google Scholar
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126 Peers, S, ‘UK Citizens as Non-EU Citizens in the EU after Brexit: Applying the EU Directive on Non-EU Long-Term Residents’ EU Law Analysis Blog (27 December 2018) available at: <http://eulawanalysis.blogspot.com/2018/12/uk-citizens-as-non-eu-citizens-in-eu.html>.Google Scholar
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128 Kurić and Others v Slovenia, No 26828/06, [2013] 56 EHRR 20.
129 Vidmar, J, ‘Brexit, Democracy and Human Rights: The Law between Secession and Treaty Withdrawal’ (2018) 35 Wisconsin International Law Journal 426.Google Scholar
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131 Case C-221/17 Tjebbes v Minister van Buitenlandse Zaken ECLI:EU:C:2019:189.
132 ECLI:EU:C:2018:572.
133 For details see (n 99).
134 For details see Home Office in the Media, Factsheet: EU Settlement Scheme Fee Waiver (21 January 2019) available at: <https://homeofficemedia.blog.gov.uk/2019/01/21/factsheet-eu-settlement-scheme-fee-waiver/>.
135 Barriers include (a) obtaining an EU permanent residence card (under existing EU law), which requires a person not working to show that they have private health insurance; (b) passing the life in the UK test; (c) high fees; and (d) passing a good character test. Details are available at: <https:// www.gov.uk/apply-citizenship-eea>. In the UK, the share of citizenships granted to other EU citizens increased from 12 per cent to 24 per cent between 2016 and 2017: see ‘Naturalisation as a British Citizen: Concepts and Trends’ (3 August 2018) available at: <https://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/resources/briefings/naturalisation-as-a-british-citizen-concepts-and-trends/>. The true scale of the Brexit related push towards the acquisition of a new citizenship is yet to emerge, but anecdotal evidence has been gathered, e.g. Paduano, S, ‘The Great British Race to Get a Second Passport’ Foreign Policy (29 January 2019) available at: <https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/01/29/britains-great-race-to-get-a-second-passport/>.Google Scholar Eurostat figures for 2017 (‘EU Member States Granted Citizenship to over 800 Thousand Persons in 2017’, Eurostat News release 41/2019, 6 March 2019) highlight that within the EU only Romanians and Poles exceeded the number of UK citizens acquiring another EU citizenship, and the number of UK citizens acquiring another citizenship more than doubled between 2016 and 2017 (6,555 to 14,911).
136 See Yeo, Eurochildren Research Brief No 2 (n 102).
137 See House of Lords European Union Committee, Brexit: Acquired Rights, 10th Report of Session 2016–17, HL Paper 82; Guma and Dafydd Jones (n 21); Ranta and Nancheva (n 95).
138 Heald, A et al., ‘The LEAVE Vote and Racial Abuse towards Black and Minority Ethnic Communities across the UK: The Impact on Mental Health’ (2018) 111 Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
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140 Dutch Nationals Taking UK Citizenship ‘‘Will Lose Netherlands Passports’’’ The Guardian (17 July 2017) available at: <https:// www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jul/17/dutch-nationals-brexit-uk-citizenship-lose-netherlands-passports-mark-rutte>..>Google Scholar
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142 See ‘Brexit Transition Act’, Federal Foreign Office (1 February 2019) available at: <https:// www.auswaertiges-amt.de/en/aussenpolitik/europa/transitional-brexitact/2119778>.
143 Gonzales, R and Sigona, N, ‘Mapping the Soft Borders of Citizenship: An Introduction’ in Gonzales, R and Sigona, N (eds), Within and Beyond Citizenship: Borders, Membership and Belonging (Taylor and Francis, London, 2017) 1, 2 (original emphasis).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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163 See Džankić (n 157).
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167 See Shaw (n 152).
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169 G Krasniqi, ‘Overlapping Jurisdictions, Disputed Territory, Unsettled State: The Perplexing Case of Citizenship in Kosovo’ in Shaw and Štiks (n 152) 69.
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173 Kacarska (n 171).
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176 D Župarić-Iljić and M Valenta, ‘“Refugee Crisis” in the Southeastern European Countries: The Rise and Fall of the Balkan Corridor’ in Menjívar et al. (n 31).
177 Commission Communication, A Credible Enlargement Perspective for and Enhanced EU Engagement with the Western Balkans, COM(2018) 65 (6 February 2018).
178 E Fouéré, ‘The Greek-Macedonian Name agreement - Promoting Reconciliation in the Western Balkans’ CEPS Commentary (29 January 2019).
179 Hillion (n 14); F Bieber, ‘Conclusion: Rethinking Europeanisation’ in Džankić et al. (n 170) 237.
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186 On attitudes to EU membership and accession see the data collected on the Balkan Public Barometer available at: <https:// www.rcc.int/seeds/results/2/balkan-opinion-barometer>.
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191 Harpaz (n 117).
192 Tóth, J, ‘The Curious Case of Hungary: Why the Naturalisation Rate Does Not Always Show How Inclusive a Country Is’ GlobalCIT Blog (3 January 2018) available at: <http://globalcit.eu/the-curious-case-of-hungary-why-the-naturalisation-rate-does-not-always-show-how-inclusive-a-country-is/>;Google Scholar Pogonyi, Sz, ‘The Passport as Means of Identity Management: Making and Unmaking Ethnic Boundaries through Citizenship’ (2018) Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 975 <https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1440493>.Google Scholar
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194 V Neofotistos, ‘Bulgarian Passports, Macedonian Identity’ (2009) 25 Anthropology Today 19.
195 See text at (n 74) and following.
196 Majtényi, B et al., ‘“Only Fidesz” – Minority Electoral Law in Hungary’ Verfassungsblog (31 March 2018) available at: <https://verfassungsblog.de/only-fidesz-electoral-law-in-hungary/>.Google Scholar
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199 ‘Austrian Citizenship Awarded to Nearly 10,000 Foreigners’ Vindobona (28 February 2019) <https:// www.vindobona.org/article/austrian-citizenship-awarded-to-nearly-10-000-foreigners>.
200 See Džankić (n 157).
201 Woelk, J, ‘From Enlargement Perspective to “Waiting for Godot”? Has the EU Lost Its Transformative Power in the Balkans?’ in Antoniolli, L et al. (eds), Highs and Lows of European Integration (Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2019) 27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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