¹ Draft articles on Responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), available at http://www.un.org/law/ilc/texts/State_responsibility/responsibilityfra.htm (visited 09-06-2003).Google Scholar

² ILC Commentary on the draft articles, Commentary on article 1 with further references; available at http://www.un.org/law/ilc/texts/State_responsibility/responsibilityfra.htm (visited 09-06-2003); Otto Kimminich/Stephan Hobe, Einführung in das Völkerrecht, 7th ed., Tübingen/Basel 2000, p. 232.Google Scholar

³ Cf. in general for the international responsibility of states the ILC Commentary on the draft articles, available at http://www.un.org/law/ilc/texts/State_responsibility/responsibilityfra.htm (visited 09-06-2003); Otto Kimminich/Stephan Hobe, Einführung in das Völkerrecht, 7th ed., Tübingen/Basel 2000, p. 232;Google Scholar

⁴ Article 3 ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

⁵ Charter of the United Nations, signed on 26 June 1945, in San Francisco, at the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, came into force on 24 October 1945. Concerning the use of force in general cf. Vera Gowlland-Debbas, The Limits of Unilateral Enforcement of Community Objectives in the Framework of UN Peace Maintenance, EJIL 11 (2000), p. 361; Bruno Simma, NATO, the U.N. and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects, EJIL 10 (1999), p. 1; Albrecht Randelzhofer, in: Bruno Simma (ed.), The Charter of the United Nations - A Commentary, 2nd ed., Oxford New York 2002, Art. 2(4); Rudolf Geiger, Grundgesetz und Völkerrecht, 3rd ed., Munich 2002, at § 64; the contributions in: Antonio Cassese (ed.), The Current Legal Regulation of the Use of Force, 1st ed., Dordrecht 1986.Google Scholar

⁶ Cf. article 35 ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

⁷ Bruno Simma, NATO, the U.N. and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects, EJIL 10 (1999), p. 1.Google Scholar

⁸ Resolution 1441 (2002), Adopted by the Security Council at its 4644th meeting, on 8 November 2002, para. 13.Google Scholar

⁹ As it did in previous resolutions when it authorized states to use “all necessary means”, cf. Res. 678 (1990), Adopted by the Security Council at its 2963rd meeting, on 29 November 1990, para. 2.Google Scholar

¹⁰ The implications of Resolution 1441(2002) have been broadly discussed during the last months, a review of opinions can be found e.g. under http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/iraq/attack/lawindex.htm (visited 25-06-2003).Google Scholar

¹¹ Article 27 para. 3 Charter of the United Nations, signed on 26 June 1945, in San Francisco, at the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, came into force on 24 October 1945. The decision of France to veto any resolution proposing the use of force is reported at http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2003-03-11/2003-03-11-318200 (visited 25-06-2003); http://www.ledevoir.com/2003/03/17/22608.html (visited 25-06-2003); Jacques Chirac, Interview given march 16, 2003, available at http://www.elysee.fr/rech/rech_.htm (visited 25-06-2003).Google Scholar

¹² Concurring 16 academic lawyers from the UK and France, cf. their open letter dated march 7, 2003, published in the Guardian and on BBC, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2829717.stm (visited 09-06-2003).Google Scholar

¹³ Article 51 Charter of the United Nations, signed on 26 June 1945, in San Francisco, at the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, came into force on 24 October 1945 reads: “Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defence shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security.”Google Scholar

¹⁴ Concerning this debate cf. Albrecht Randelzhofer, in: Bruno Simma (ed.), The Charter of the United Nations - A Commentary, 2nd ed., Oxford New York 2002, Art. 51, no. 39;Otto Kimminich/Stephan Hobe, Einführung in das Völkerrecht, 7th ed., Tübingen/Basel 2000, p. 281; Niko Krisch, Selbstverteidigung und kollektive Sicherheit, 1st ed., Berlin 2001; Stanimir A. Alexandrov, Self-Defense Against the Use of Force in International Law, 1st ed., The Hague 1996, p. 98; Antonio Cassese, Why States Use Force With Impunity: The “Black Holes” of International Law, in: Antonio Cassese, Violence and Law in the Modern Age, 1^st ed., Oxford 1988, p. 30, at p. 35; Horst Fischer, in: Knut Ipsen, Völkerrecht, 4^th ed., Munich 1999, § 59, no. 29 with reference to the Caroline incident of 1837 as origin of this discussion.Google Scholar

¹⁵ 16 academic lawyers from the UK and France, cf. their open letter dated march 7, 2003, published in the Guardian and on BBC, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2829717.stm (visited 09-06-2003).Google Scholar

¹⁶ Resolution 678 (1990), Adopted by the Security Council at its 2963rd meeting, on 29 November 1990, para. 2 and Resolution 687 (1991), Adopted by the Security Council at its 2981st meeting, on 3 April 1991, para. 4.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Matthew Happold, The legal case for war with Iraq, http://www.guardian.co.uk/theissues/article/0,6512,913589,00.html (visited 25-06-2003).Google Scholar

¹⁸ 16 academic lawyers from the UK and France, cf. their open letter dated march 7, 2003, published in the Guardian and on BBC, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2829717.stm (visited 09-06-2003).Google Scholar

¹⁹ Article 30 lit. (a) ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

²⁰ Article 31 ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

²¹ Acknowledged as early as in the Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9, p. 21; cf. the International Court's reference to this decision in LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America), Merits, judgment of 27 June 2001, para. 48.Google Scholar

²² Factory at Chorzów, Merits, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, p. 47, cited by ILC Commentary to Art. 31 para. 2, p. 223–4.Google Scholar

²³ ILC Commentary to Article 31 para. 9-10, p. 227–8.Google Scholar

²⁴ David Wimhurst, Transcript of the UN humanitarian briefing in Amman, Jordan, 9 April, http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocusnewsiraq1.asp?NewsID=485&sID=9 (visited 25-06-2003).Google Scholar

²⁵ As to the responsibility of the occupying military forces under international humanitarian law to maintain a secure environment for the civilian population cf. David Wimhurst, Transcript of the UN humanitarian briefing in Amman, Jordan, 9 April, http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocusnewsiraq1.asp?NewsID=485&sID=9 (visited 25-06-2003)Google Scholar

²⁶ United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports, 1980, p. 3 at p. 33, para. 68.Google Scholar

²⁷ Article 34 ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

²⁸ Article 31 ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

²⁹ Article 35 ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

³⁰ The restution of the loss of life is materially impossible in the sense of article 35 lit. (a) draft articles.Google Scholar

³¹ Article 35 lit. (b) ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

³² Article 36 ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

³³ Article 36 para. 2 ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

³⁴ ILC Commentary to Article 36, para. 16, p. 252 and para. 19, p. 254 with further references.Google Scholar

³⁵ Ibid.Google Scholar

³⁶ Article 37 para. 1 ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

³⁷ Article 37 para. 1 ILC draft articles.Google Scholar

³⁸ Article 37, para. 4, p. 264 with further references.Google Scholar

³⁹ In the sense of article 16 ILC draft articles.Google Scholar