Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-tj2md Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T07:35:04.734Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

THE WATER RELATIONS OF RUBBER (HEVEA BRASILIENSIS): A REVIEW

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 October 2011

M. K. V. CARR
M. K. V. CARR*
Affiliation:
Emeritus Professor, School of Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, Bedford, MK45 0AL, UK
*
†Corresponding author. Email: mikecarr@cwms.org.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

The results of research done on water relations of rubber are collated and summarised in an attempt to link fundamental studies on crop physiology to crop management practices. Background information is given on the centres of origin (Amazon Basin) and production of rubber (humid tropics; south-east Asia), but the crop is now being grown in drier regions. The effects of water stress on the development processes of the crop are summarised, followed by reviews of its water relations, water requirements and water productivity. The majority of the recent research published in the international literature has been conducted in south-east Asia. The rubber tree has a single straight trunk, the growth of which is restricted by ‘tapping’ for latex. Increase in stem height is discontinuous, a period of elongation being followed by a ‘rest’ period during which emergence of leaves takes place. Leaves are produced in tiers separated by lengths of bare stem. Trees older than three to four years shed senescent leaves (a process known as ‘wintering’). ‘Wintering’ is induced by dry, or less wet, weather; trees may remain (nearly) leafless for up to four weeks. The more pronounced the dry season the shorter the period of defoliation. Re-foliation begins before the rains start. The supply of latex is dependent on the pressure potential in the latex vessels, whereas the rate of flow is negatively correlated with the saturation deficit of the air. Radial growth of the stem declines in tapped trees relative to untapped trees within two weeks of the start of tapping. Roots can extend in depth to more than 4 m and laterally more than 9 m from the trunk. The majority of roots are found within 0.3 m of the soil surface. Root elongation is depressed during leaf growth, while root branching is enhanced. Stomata are only found on the lower surface of the leaf, at densities from 280 to 700 mm−2. The xylem vessels of rubber trees under drought stress are vulnerable to cavitation, particularly in the leaf petiole. By closing, the stomata play an essential role in limiting cavitation. Clones differ in their susceptibility to cavitation, which occurs at xylem water potentials in the range of −1.8 to −2.0 MPa. Clone RRII 105 is capable of maintaining higher leaf water potentials than other clones because of stomatal closure, supporting its reputation for drought tolerance. Clones differ in their photosynthetic rates. Light inhibition of photosynthesis can occur, particularly in young plants, when shade can be beneficial. Girth measurements have been used to identify drought-tolerant clones. Very little research on the water requirements of rubber has been reported, and it is difficult to judge the validity of the assumptions made in some of the methodologies described. The actual evapotranspiration rates reported are generally lower than might be expected for a tree crop growing in the tropics (<3 mm d−1). Virtually no research on the yield responses to water has been reported and, with the crop now being grown in drier regions, this is surprising. In these areas, irrigation can reduce the immaturity period from more than 10 years to six years. The important role that rubber plays in the livelihoods of smallholders, and in the integrated farming systems practised in south-east Asia, is summarized.

Type
Research Article
Information
Experimental Agriculture , Volume 48 , Issue 2 , April 2012 , pp. 176 - 193
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D. and Smith, M. (1998). Crop evapotranspiration: guidelines for computing crop water requirements. Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56, Rome, Italy.Google Scholar
Barlow, C. (1997). Growth, structural change and plantation tree crops; the case of rubber. World Development 25 (10):1589–1607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cardinal, A. B. B., Goncalves, P. D. and Martins, A. L. M. (2007). Stock-scion interactions on growth and rubber yield of Hevea brasiliensis. Scientia Agricola (Piracicara, Braz.) 64 (3):235–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, M. K. V. (2001). The water relations and irrigation requirements of coffee. Experimental Agriculture 37:1–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, M. K. V. (2009). The water relations and irrigation requirements of banana (Musa Spp.). Experimental Agriculture 45:333–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, M. K. V. (2010a). The role of water in the growth of the tea (Camellia sinensis L.) crop: a synthesis of research in eastern Africa. 1. Plant water relations. Experimental Agriculture 46:329–349.Google Scholar
Carr, M. K. V. (2010b). The role of water in the growth of the tea (Camellia sinensis L.) crop: a synthesis of research in eastern Africa. 2. Water productivity. Experimental Agriculture 46:351–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, M. K. V. (2011a). The water relations and irrigation requirements of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.): a review. Experimental Agriculture 47:27–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, M. K. V. (2011b). The water relations and irrigation requirements of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis): a review. Experimental Agriculture 47:629–652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, M. K. V. and Knox, J. W. (2011). The water relations and irrigation requirements of sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum L.): a review. Experimental Agriculture 47:1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, M. K. V. and Lockwood, G. (2011). The water relations and irrigation requirements of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.): a review. Experimental Agriculture 47:653–690.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandrashekar, T. R., Nazeer, M. A., Marattukulam, J. G., Prakash, J. P., Annamalainathan, K. and Thomas, J. (1998). An analysis of growth and drought tolerance in rubber during the immature phase in a dry subhumid climate. Experimental Agriculture 34:287–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, J-W., Zhang, Q., Li, X.-S. and Cao, K.-F. (2010). Gas exchange and hydraulics in seedlings of Hevea brasiliensis during water stress and recovery. Tree Physiology 30 (7):876–885.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corley, R. H. V. (1983). Potential productivity of tropical perennial crops. Experimental Agriculture 19:217–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devakumar, A. S., Prakash, P., Sathik, M. B. M. and Jacob, J. (1999). Drought alters the canopy architecture and micro-climate of Hevea brasiliensis trees. Trees 13:161–167.Google Scholar
Devakumar, A. S., Sathik, M. B. M., Jacob, J. and Annamalainathan, K. (1998). Effects of atmospheric and soil drought on growth and development of Hevea brasiliensis. Journal of Rubber Research 1 (3):190–198.Google Scholar
Do, F. and Rocheteau, A. (2002). Influence of natural temperature gradients on measurements of xylem sap flow with thermal dissipation probes. 2. Advantages and calibration of a non-continuous heating system. Tree Physiology 22:649–654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FAOSTAT (2010). http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancorGoogle Scholar
Filho, J. P. de L., Nova, N. A. V. and Pinto, H. S. (1993). Base temperature and heat units for leaf flushing emission and growth of Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg. International Journal of Biometeorology 37:65–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, S., Suresh, P. R., Wahid, P. A., Nair, R. B. and Punnoose, K. I. (2009). Active root distribution pattern of Hevea brasiliensis determined by radioassay of latex serum. Agroforestry Systems 76:275–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomes, A. R. S. and Kozlowski, T. T. (1988). Stomatal characteristics, leaf waxes, and transpiration rates of Theobroma cacao and Hevea brasiliensis seedlings. Annals of Botany 61:425–432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez, J. B. and Hamzah, S. (1980). Variation in leaf morphology and anatomy between clones of Hevea. Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia 28:157–182.Google Scholar
Gonkhamdee, S., Pierret, A., Maeght, J.-l. and Do, F. C. (2009). Growth dynamics of fine Hevea brasilensis roots along a 4.5-m soil profile. Khon Kaen Agriculture Journal 3:265–276.Google Scholar
Guardiola-Claramonte, M., Troch, P. A., Ziegler, A. D., Giambelluca, T. W., Durcik, M., Vogler, J. B. and Nuller, M. A. (2008). Local hydrologic effects of introducing non-native vegetation in a tropical environment. Ecohydrology 1 (1):13–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guardiola-Claramonte, M., Troch, P. A., Ziegler, A. D., Giambelluca, T. W., Durcik, M., Vogler, J. B. and Nuller, M. A. (2010). Hydrologic effects of the expansion of rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) in a tropical environment. Ecohydrology 3 (3):306–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunasekara, H. K. L. K., De Costa, W. A. J. M. and Nugawela, F. A. (2007a). Genotypic variation in canopy photosynthesis, leaf gas exchange characteristics and their response to tapping in rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). Experimental Agriculture 43:223–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunasekara, H. K. L. K., Nugawela, F. A., De Costa, W. A. J. M. and Attanayake, D. P. S. T. G. (2007b). Possibility of early commencement of tapping in rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) using different genotypes and tapping systems. Experimental Agriculture 43:201–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gururaja Rao, G., Sanjeeva Rao, P., Devakumar, A. S., Vijayakumar, K. R. and Sethuraj, M. R. (1990). Influence of soil, plant and meteorological factors on water relations and yield of Hevea brasiliensis. International Journal of Biometeorology 34:175–180.Google Scholar
IRSG (2010). International Rubber Study Group. http://www.rubberstudy.com/statistics.aspxGoogle Scholar
Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya, S. (2010). Change of whole-tree transpiration of mature Hevea brasiliensis under soil and atmospheric droughts: analyze in intermittent and seasonal droughts under the framework of the hydraulic limitation hypothesis. PhD thesis, University Blaise Pascal and Khon Kaen University.Google Scholar
Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya, S., Do, F. C., Pannengpetch, K., Junjittakarn, J., Maeght, J.-L., Rocheteau, A. and Cochard, H. (2009). Transient thermal dissipation method of xylem sap flow measurement: multi-species calibration and field evaluation. Tree Physiology 30:139–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya, S., Do, F. C., Pannengpetch, K., Junjittakarn, J., Maeght, J.-L., Rocheteau, A. and Cochard, H. (2011a). Water loss regulation in mature Hevea brasiliensis: effects of intermittent drought in rainy season and hydraulic regulation. Tree Physiology 31:751–762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jessy, M. D., Mathew, M., Jacob, S. and Punnoose, K. I. (1994). Comparative evaluation of basin and drip irrigation systems of irrigation in rubber. Indian Journal Natural Rubber Research 7 (1):51–56.Google Scholar
Krishna, T. H., Bhaskar, C. V. S., Rao, P. S., Chandrashekar, T. R., Sethuraj, M. R. and Vijayakumar, K. R. (1991). Effect of irrigation on physiological performance of immature plants of Hevea brasliensis in North Konkan. Indian Journal of Natural Rubber Research 4:36–45.Google Scholar
Manivong, V. (2007). The Economic Potential for Smallholder Rubber Production in Northern Laos. MPhil thesis, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.Google Scholar
Martins, M. B. G. and Zieri, R. (2003). Leaf anatomy of rubber tree clones. Scientia Agricola 60 (4):709–713.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendes, M. E. G., Villagra, M. M., de Souza, M. D., Bacchi, O. O. S. and Reichardt, K. (1992). Water relations in a rubber-tree plantation of Piracicaba, SP. Scientia Agricola 49 (1):103–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monteny, B. A. and Barigah, S. (1985). Effect of leaf age and water deficit on the leaf photosynthetic rate of Hevea brasiliensis. In Proceedings of the International Rubber Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 21–25 October 1985, 1–11.Google Scholar
Nataraja, K. N. and Jacob, J. (1999). Clonal differences in photosynthesis in Hevea brasiliensis Mϋll. Arg. Photosynthetica 36:89–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nugawela, A., Long, S. P. and Aluthhewage, R. K. (1995). Possible use of certain physiological characteristics of young Hevea plants in predicting yield at maturity. Indian Journal of Natural Rubber Research 8:100–108.Google Scholar
Paardekooper, E. C. (1989). Exploitation of the rubber tree. In Rubber, 349–414 (Eds Webster, C. C. and Baulkwill, W. J.). Essex, UK: Longman.Google Scholar
Paardekooper, E. C. and Sookmark, S. (1969). Diurnal variation in latex yield and dry rubber content in relation to the saturation deficit of air. Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Malaya 21:341–347.Google Scholar
Pagès, L., Le Roux, Y. and Thaler, P. (1995). Root system architecture and modelling. Plantations Recherche Developpement 2:30–34.Google Scholar
Priyadarshan, P. M. (2003). Breeding Hevea brasiliensis for environmental constraints. Advances in Agronomy 79:351–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Priyadarshan, P. M., Hoa, T. T. T., Huasun, H. and Gonçalves, P. de S. (2005). Yielding potential of rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) in sub-optimal environments. In Genetic and Production Innovations in Field Crop Technology: New Developments in Theory and Practice, 221–247 (Ed Kang, M. S.). New York: Haworth Press.Google Scholar
Purseglove, J. W. (1968). Tropical Crops:Dicotyledons. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Ranasinghe, M. S. and Milburn, J. A. (1995). Xylem conduction and cavitation in Hevea brasiliensis. Journal of Experimental Botany 46:1693–1700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rao, B. S. (1971). Controlled wintering of Hevea brasiliensis for avoiding secondary leaf fall. In Proceedings of the Conference, Crop Protection in Malaysia, 204–211 (Eds Wastie, R. L. and Wood, B. J.). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Incorporated Society of Planters.Google Scholar
Rodrigo, V. H. L. (2007). Ecophysiological factors underpinning productivity of Hevea brasiliensis. Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology 19 (4):245–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodrigo, V. H. L., Stirling, C. M., Teklehaimanot, Z., Samarasekera, R. K. and Pathirana, P. D. (2005). Interplanting banana at high densities with immature rubber crop for improved water use. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 25:45–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samsuddin, Z. (1980). Differences in stomatal density, dimension and stomatal conductances to water vapour diffusion in seven Hevea species. Biologia Plantarum 22:154–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samsuddin, Z. and Impens, I. (1978). Comparative net photosynthesis of four Hevea brasiliensis clonal seedlings. Experimental Agriculture 14:337–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samsuddin, Z. and Impens, I. (1979a). Relationship between leaf age and some carbon dioxide exchange characteristics of four Hevea brasiliensis Muel. Agr. clones. Photosynthetica 13:208–210.Google Scholar
Samsuddin, Z. and Impens, I. (1979b). The development of photosynthetic rate with leaf age in Hevea brasiliensis Muel. Agr. Clonal seedlings. Photosynthetica 13:267–270.Google Scholar
Sangsing, K., Kasemsap, P., Thanisawanyangkura, S., Sangkhasila, K., Gohet, E., Thaler, P. and Cochard, H. (2004a). Xylem embolism and stomatal regulation in two rubber clones (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.) Trees, Sructure and Function 18:109–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sangsing, K., Kasemsap, P., Thanisawanyangkura, S., Sangkhasila, K., Gohet, E., Thaler, P. and Cochard, H. (2004b). Is growth performance in rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) clones related to xylem hydraulic efficiency? Canadian Journal of Botany 82 (7):886–891.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Senanayake, V. D. and Samaranayake, P. (1970). Intraspecific variation in stomatal density in Hevea brasilensis. Quarterly Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Ceylon 46:61–65.Google Scholar
Senevirathna, A. M. W. K., Stirling, C. M. and Rodrigo, V. H. L. (2003). Growth, photosynthetic performance and shade adaptation of rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) grown in natural shade. Tree Physiology 23:705–712.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silpi, U., Thaler, P., Kasemsap, P., Lacointe, A., Chantuma, A., Adam, B., Gohet, E., Thanisawanyangkura, S. and Améglio, T. (2006). Effect of tapping activity on the dynamics of radial growth of Hevea brasiliensis trees. Tree Physiology 26:1579–1587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soong, N. K. (1976). Feeder root development of Havea brasiliensis in relation to clones and environment. Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia 24:283–298.Google Scholar
Squire, G. R. (1990). The Physiology of Tropical Crop Production. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.Google Scholar
Templeton, J. K. (1969). Where lies the yield summit for Hevea? Planters’ Bulletin for the Rubber Research Institute of Malaya 104:220–225.Google Scholar
Thaler, P. and Pagès, L. (1996). Periodicity in the development of the root system of young rubber trees (Hevea brasilienis Mϋell. Arg.): relationship with shoot development. Plant, Cell and Environment 19:56–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thaler, P. and Pagès, L. (1998). Modelling the influence of assimilate availability on root growth and architecture. Plant and Soil 201:307–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Varghese, Y. A. and Abraham, S. T. (2005). Rubber. In Handbook of Industrial Crops, Ch. 10, 403–458 (Eds Chopra, V. L. and Peter, K. V.). New York: Haworth Press.Google Scholar
Vijayakumar, K. R., Dey, S. K., Chandrasekhar, T. R., Devakumar, A. S., Mohankrishna, T., Sanjeeva Rao, P. and Sethuraj, M. R. (1998). Irrigation requirement of rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis) in the subhumid tropics. Agricultural Water Management 35:245–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Viswanathan, P. K. (2008). Emerging smallholder rubber farming systems in India and Thailand: A comparative economic analysis. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development 5 (2):1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webster, C. C. and Paardekooper, E. C. (1989). The botany of the rubber tree. In Rubber, 57–84 (Eds Webster, C. C. and Baulkwill, W. J.). Essex, UK: Longman.Google Scholar