There are a number of alcoholic beverages in Nigeria. Parm wine (also called parmy) is an alcoholic beverage obtained from the African parm tree. It is a fermented sap of the parm tree, and contains 3-6% of alcohol by volume. Over 80% of the general population according to current survey considers parm wine as a non-alcoholic beverage. Data suggests that this wine contains significant amount of vitamin E, some ions, that are necessary for the normal functioning of the body. High consumption of native alcoholic beverages like Kaikai or Ogogoro (40-60% alcohol by volume), and other widely used alcoholic drinks like Guinness, Star, Heineken with higher alcohol content, compared to the parm wine have greatly contributed to this misconception. Another fact is that majority of parm wine users are non-educated people, especially in villages. Educated people, especially in cities normally use canned beer, Guinness, Star, Heineken, spirits (a little proportion) as consumption of these beverages according to the majority of people signifies the amount of money a man has. Others say it is for a better sociability. Some use alcoholic beverages for pleasure as well as to forget their problems at home and work places. The differences in the preference for these alcoholic beverages, including parm wine in Nigeria largely depend on religion and geographical location. High consumption of alcoholic beverages (including parm wine) is seen, mostly among Christians and in the south and middle-belt of the country.

Sometimes addiction is referred to as the hallmark of drug abuse. But, whether addictive behaviors are caused by the drug itself, its metabolites, or adducts are still poorly understood. This paper is a review of recent data concerning the role of adducts in addictive behaviors. A number of studies have shown the ability of psychotic substances to react with proteins in vitro to give stable and unstable adducts. For instance, the interaction of acetaldehyde with proteins has been identified as a diastereoisomeric mixture of imidazolidinones. Malondialdehyde and acetaldehyde can react with proteins synergistically to form hybrid protein conjugates - MAA adducts. Biological responses to adduct-modified proteins may play a role in the pathology of drug-induced organ malfunctions/diseases. Majority of data shows that adducts of magnesium halide/alcohol; lipoprotein; 4-mthyl-1,4-dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarbaldehyde; FAAB; MAA are responsible for the damaging effect of alcohol at the cell, tissue and organ level and might be greatly responsible for addictive behaviors among drug users.

Understanding the complex mechanisms in the development of substance use disorders lies at the receptor level - binding potential, ability of ligand to stimulate receptor autophosphorylation, degree of receptor activation/deactivation reactions - are the basis of the pathogenesis of alcohol/other drugs induced liver and brain damages, ischemic heart disease, allostatic load-effect, intoxication, addiction, tolerance, craving, relapse, and their associated complex chain of enzymatic reaction are key steps to developing effective prevention and treatment. Dose response inhibition of GP IIb/IIIa, P-selectin, CD 63 and CD 107a human platelet receptors by ethanol has been observed. The activation of GABA-B receptor, has recently been shown to be effective in inducing abstinence and reducing alcohol craving and consumption in alcoholics. The fact that alcohol reduces the activity of glutamate by interacting with NMDA receptors has shown promising effects in drug therapy. The anticonvulsant, Topiramate acts on AMPA-kainate receptors, and decreases glutamate activity while increasing GABA activity. Decreased activity of 5-HT3 serotonin receptor has been shown to reduce the frequency and quantity of drinking in humans. The dopamine receptors also play significant role in substance use. Another recent candidate of therapeutic target is the brain CB1 receptor that responds to endocannabinoids. Comprehensive research is needed to confirm and further explore the effects of new therapeutic agents and addictive substances on various cell receptors, which are implicated in substance use disorders.

Following the establishment of the disease concept of alcoholism, many attempts, as well as achievements have been made in alcohol research. The genetotrophic, endocrine, genetic, stressor, psychoanalytic, cultural, behavioral and abnormal brain metabolites theories have been used to explain various mechanisms of alcohol use effects. Cultural and social factors in alcohol use and related problems are supported by both Durkheim's and Leighton's theories. With recent advances in radiological, spectroscopic analyses, it is now possible to study the effects of alcohol and other drugs (at various levels of use) on the brain's function and structure. MRI techniques have been used to trace the changes that occur when the brain is exposed to alcohol. Through such studies, specific alcohol-related changes in the brain, their duration, effects on behavior and the compensational mechanisms for these changes have been largely explored. The use of iterative testing approach, using computer models to test complex neuropsychophysiological and physicobiological mechanisms, including electrophysiological waveforms analysis in alcohol use problems are prospective area of alcohol research that might totally solve the problems of alcohol predisposition. PET in visualization and measuring the electrical activity of the brain may help explain the mechanisms and solve individual differences in the problem of alcohol related blackouts and memory lapses.

This paper examines the general view of the culture of alcohol consumption in the African continent. Unlike in some European countries where alcohol use is part of the daily life of the people or is used, especially during meals, in Africa, generally, alcohol is used mostly during rituals, marriage ceremonies, clan/family festivities. During rituals, intoxicating power of alcohol is associated, sometimes with the supernatural power of the gods. Alcohol is also given as gifts during bride price ceremony. Statistical data confirm that majority of alcohol users in this continent are Christians and non-religious people. Lower proportion of alcohol consumption is seen in the Muslim community in relation to the Christians. Even though, some use alcohol as daily drink, generally intoxication (except during rituals) is considered a sin. The most especially used beverage is the native alcohol (obtained as a distillation product of sap of tree, mostly parm). The level of native distillation techniques determines the alcohol content in the various native alcoholic beverages. Alcohol content in the distillation product might vary between 30-70%. Some proportion of African communities use the tree sap without distillation. In recent times, most African communities have lost the power of control over the sale and use of alcoholic beverages, and this subsequently led to increase alcohol problems, including chronic alcoholism, especially among children. In conclusion, as a result the gradual fading of cultural norms, alcohol use nowadays, in African communities, generally, is open to the general population, regardless of age.

This is a hypothesis that has come a long way to explaining some peculiarities of alcohol effect in the central nervous system. An important postulate in this hypothesis is the role of some alcohol-adducts in neurotransmission, especially in the early stages of intoxication and the degree of thermo-dynamical balance during adducts formation provide important clues to its effect, and to find better treatment options for addiction. Another postulate is that adducts at its initial formation, might act as antioxidants. Adduct formation in relation to the quantity and frequency of alcohol use, its role in behavior, dependence and tolerance is still not known. Majority of data shows that adducts of magnesium halide/alcohol; lipoprotein; 4-mthyl-1,4-dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarbaldehyde, MDHDC; FAAB, MAA are responsible for the carcinogenic/damaging effects of alcohol. The degree of hematological derangements caused by acetaldehyde adducts might have serious implications in brain functions. Recent studies have shown that adducts can induce the release of proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α in heart endothelial cell. Biological responses to adduct-modified proteins are responsible for the development and/or progression of alcoholic liver disease. Researches have consistently shown that any liver dysfunction, even without apparent damage might lead to significantly low performance in neuropsychological tests.

Drug addiction is a complex neuropsychophysiological disease process of the brain that results from recurring drug use and is modulated by genetic, developmental, experiential, and environmental factors, involving both neurobiological and psychogenetic mechanisms of action, which is associated with the limbic subcortical and frontal (orbitofrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate gyrus) structures with a complex system of network - mesolimbic dopamine, opioid peptide, -aminobutyric acid, and the endocannabinoid systems, which are localized to key circuits in the basal forebrain, including the nucleus accumbens and amygdala. Addiction is marked by intoxication, bingeing, withdrawal, craving and involves fluctuation in dopamine levels resulting in disruption of circuits that regulate the behavioral, cognitive, motivational and emotional responses. These responses are in many cases modulated by molecular neuroadaptations, subsequently leading to changes in the brain's addictive cycle. In spite of the huge scientific data on addiction, much on the topic is still needed to be unraveled. Here, we proposed a linkage between the psycho- and physiopathogenetic basis of addiction. An important psychological explanatory model of alcohol use that will necessarily provide significant linkage with physiogenetic basis of addiction is the tension-reduction and expectancy models -the initiative-effectors of addictive behaviors.

Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that for equal quantity of alcohol used, females experience greater effect, compared to males. This phenomenon is referred to the telescoping effect. These peculiarities are as a result of the gender differences in the brain's structural/functional systems etc. In spite of these differences, researchers have constantly reported a variety of inconsistencies of data concerning the differences in alcohol related problems among male and female genders. We therefore, reviewed and examined current literature data on the gender differences in alcohol use and related problems. Our data for the past years of research suggest that alcohol use is higher among the female population, although related problems are slightly higher among the males p< 0.05. These differences might be due to the higher doses of alcohol used by males, as well as the circumstances of use. Several other studies have noted a no difference rate in the percentages of alcohol users among female and male genders. This present work shows that the gender differences in alcohol use is closing up, and might show higher proportion of use, in some cases for the females. Generally, higher rate of alcohol problems are reported among males, probably because of the higher dose effect, as well as the peculiar sociability pattern of behavior among the male populations.

Alcohol recommendations have been mostly based on the functions of the circulating system. Extensive literature data analysis revealed that the recommended 1-2 drinks/day in most cases has resulted in unexpected negative outcome. Even though the excretion time of alcohol by the body is known, little is known about the intracellular changes caused by the slight increase in blood alcohol concentration. As s result, much is still needed to be done in the subject. Many studies have been confirmed the age differences in alcohol use and related problems. Based on current literature data, generalizing alcohol recommendations based on its effects on the circulating system, or body mass index is actually misleading. Recent epidemiological data show that low to moderate dose of alcohol is harmful for certain professions, as it is linked to metabolic incompetency under effective work. We therefore, provided a no-addition-subtraction criterion, called the GAPPIG, which put in analysis, all of the following parameters: Gender, Age, Profession, Prevalent disease in the population, Individual's health status, Genetic predisposition. The GAPPIG criteria put into consideration all the determinants of work performance as well as factors that modulate alcohol effects.

Following the discovery of the Error Related Negativity, ERN in the early 1990s, the field of event related brain potential research is gradually growing. The ERN in recent times has been related to the presence of a monitoring system in the basal ganglia. Ridderinkhof et al have showed that alcohol disrupts the error monitoring system. Although the way alcohol affects the error monitoring system is yet uncovered, Halroyd et al have noted that alcohol might either affect this system directly or indirectly by causing changes in the level of dopamine. This study reviews recent data that might explain the indirect effect of alcohol in the error monitoring system. The major findings in this study put into consideration some points stated in Ridderinkhof et al & Halroyd et al models, the fishbone model of blood-brain glucose metabolism. The magnitude of error commission is dependent on the mesencephalic dopamine system, anterior cingulate cortex activities, associated systems and the brain glucose concentration. This present literature analysis suggests that alcohol related disruption of the error monitoring system results from its metabolic effects on glucose metabolism, which in turn leads to changes in dopamine levels, subsequently affecting the activities of the anterior cingulate cortex, including associated systems.

A growing body of evidence suggests that synaptic plasticity is involved in addictive behaviour and nicotine dependence (ND). Neurotrophic factors, such as neurotrophin 3 (NT3) play a key role in modulating neuronal plasticity. Therefore, an association between nicotine, smoking and neurotrophic factors has been suggested. However, the role of NT3 in ND has not been thoroughly investigated in humans so far.

We investigated the influence of chronic (long-term smoking) and acute nicotine administration on the plasma level of NT3. We measured plasma NT3 levels at baseline and then 15 and 45 minutes after nicotine or placebo administration using an enzyme-linked-immunoabsorbent-assay (ELISA). Smokers showed higher NT3 level than non-smokers at baseline. Interestingly, 15 minutes after acute nicotine injection, plasma level of NT3 in both smokers and non-smokers decreased significantly and went back to baseline levels after 30 minutes. We found that plasma nicotine and NT3 levels were positively correlated in smokers at baseline.

There is a direct interaction of nicotine with NT3, which is different in acute and chronic exposure. Interestingly, the concentration of NT3 is correlated and up-regulated in smokers. We propose that neuroplasticity, which plays a role in addictive behaviour such as smoking or nicotine dependence (ND) might be mediated by these interactions of nicotine and NT3. We speculate that these might even play a part in the so called “self-medicating” with cigarettes that is often seen in patients with certain mental disorders.

The drug dependence especially opioid dependence, represents at moment a very challenging therapeutic domain, even that huge steps-methadone, buprenorphine, naltrexone-had been discovered.

The fact that almost 50% of all drug-induced psychosis results during the progess of disease to various forms of schizophrenia is as well an undeniable truth.

The main aim of this retrospective study is to raise the question, upon a possible therapeutic effect of methadone in the clinical evolution of patients diagnosed according with DSMIV with clinical forms of Schizophrenia Sdr which are presenting as well a drug dependence sdr.

The study had been realised on patients which were held in various prison establishments. the number of the patients was 24 with age between 24-35 years old, with longstanding history of heroin of heroin abuse(IV user) for tlast 10 years, cocaine/crack user-10 years,10 years of cannabis user.

All patients were presenting at the start of the stydy positive symptoms(delusion with presecutory themes; auditive and viusal hallucinations; evident thought disorders) and negative symptoms (apathy, anhedonia, social isolation, even at the point of autistic withdrawal). All of them were under specific treatment with second generation of antipsychotics-e.g. Olanzapine, Risperidone, Aripiprazole.

The length of time for the study was of 9 months. During this interval, after they had re start the methadone programme with corect adjusted doses depending on the severity of their drug dependence, it had been seen a massive reduction of negative symptoms but also a semnificative decrease of their positive symptoms-especially hallucinations.

The main explanation for this unexpected therapeutic effect is represented by the mechanisms which oipiod substitutes-methadone, esp-exerts upon the dopaminergic pathways (involved in the genesis of schizophrenic pathology).

Heavy marijuana use has well established long term consequences for cognition and mental health, but the effect on brain structure is less well understood. We used an MRI technique that is sensitive to the structural integrity of brain tissue combined with a white matter mapping tractography technique to investigate structural changes in the corpus callosum (CC). Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) was obtained in eleven heavy marijuana users who started using marijuana in early adolescence and eleven age matched controls. Mean diffusivity (MD) and fractional anisotropy (FA) (which measure structural integrity and tract coherence, respectively) were analysed within the corpus callosum which was spatially defined using tractography and tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS). MD was significantly increased in marijuana users relative to controls in the region of the CC where white matter passes between the prefrontal lobes. This observation suggests impaired structural integrity affecting the fibre tracts of the CC and is in keeping with previous reports of altered and diversified activation patterns in marijuana users. There was a trend towards a positive correlation between MD and length of use suggesting the possibility of a cumulative effect of marijuana over time and that a younger age at onset of use may predispose individuals to structural white matter damage. Structural abnormalities revealed in the CC may underlie cognitive and behavioural consequences of long term heavy marijuana use.