Two field trials of A 2 live influenza vaccine (Iksha) are described; the clinical reactions and antibody response in three earlier trials are compared.

The antibody response in the last two trials was unsatisfactory and was inferior to that observed in the earlier investigations. This reduction in response was probably due to an alteration in the virus during further passage.

The dip-slide, consisting of a glass microscope slide coated with nutrient medium and inoculated by dipping in freshly voided urine, provides a simple measure of the bacterial concentration in fresh urine. This is a useful supplement to the usual microscopy and culture of urine in the diagnosis of urinary tract infections in general practice, when specimens cannot be delivered to a laboratory within several hours of collection, particularly when urine specimens have to travel by post. Dip-slides are also useful as the sole test in screening for symptomless bacteriuria.

Heating at 37° C. for 5 days completely abolished the capacity of a trachoma/inclusion conjunctivitis (TRIC) vaccine to protect baboons against conjunctival infection. Treatment with formalin also impaired or abolished immunogenicity.

The rate of inactivation of TRIC agent by ultraviolet light was exponential, and was about 7 times faster than that of a suspension of vaccinia virus of comparable turbidity. By contrast with vaccinia, irradiation of TRIC agent with twice the dose of ultraviolet light needed to destroy infectivity resulted in loss of immunogenicity.

The deleterious action of these inactivation procedures on the potency of TRIC vaccines may be explained in terms of damage to a protective antigen; alternatively, live vaccines may be more immunogenic because TRIC agents are capable of multiplying within primate hosts after parenteral injection.

Unlike the same type of variant of another strain of inclusion conjunctivitis, the ‘fast-killing’ variant of MRC-4 was still pathogenic for the baboon conjunctiva.

A serum neutralization test was used to determine the incidence of rinderpest antibodies in populations of blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus albojubatus Thomas) occurring in the Serengeti-Mara districts of N. Tanzania and S. Kenya. By correlating the age of animals at the time of shooting with the presence or absence of antibodies it was possible to outline the course of rinderpest in these animals over the period 1961–7.

Serengeti migrant wildebeest were extensively infected in 1961, but not in 1962 or any subsequent year. No samples have been collected from this group since mid-1966. Kirawira resident wildebeest were last infected in 1961 according to samples collected in February 1967. Two of 13 animals born into the Mara resident population in late 1961 or early 1962 were found to possess antibodies, together with a high proportion (74%) of animals born in early 1961. This finding was considered indicative of a rinderpest epizootic in this group in the terminal weeks of 1961. No subsequent infection occurred in Mara wildebeest between 1962 and March 1966. Ngorongoro resident wildebeest were infected in the second half of 1962 but have remained free of rinderpest from 1963 until at least April 1966.

The findings of the present survey were compared and contrasted with results of a similar study carried out some 2 to 3 years previously.

Field strains of bovine rinderpest virus were isolated from the Loliondo district of N. Tanzania in November 1965 and March 1966. Serum samples from buffalo, eland, impala, warthog, and resident wildebeest which inhabited areas adjoining the two outbreaks failed to provide evidence of any recent epizootic in game animals. Circumstantial evidence indicated that the virus could have persisted in the Loliondo area since 1961. Two resident wildebeest born in 1963 and 1964 respectively, were thought to have been infected during a period when the disease went unrecognised. Serengeti migrant wildebeest were not found to have been infected after a period of potential contact with sick cattle in March 1966.

Chick embryos were inoculated with measured doses of various strains of the agents of trachoma and inclusion blennorrhoea, and the number of infective organisms they contained was determined at intervals during the first 4 days after inoculation. From curves of the yield of agent at different times relative to the dose inoculated, it was evident that the lag phase before the exponential phase of growth began was shorter for fast-killing—and more virulent—variant strains than for slow-killing strains, and the difference was statistically significant; and that variant strains multiplied faster during the exponential phase of growth and produced then- highest titres sooner.

Two pools of living influenza vaccine derived from the Russian A 2 strain Iksha had given discrepant results in clinical trials. The less effective pool showed an increased thermostability of haemagglutinin, an increased elution rate from red blood cells and a reduced ability to grow in chorioallantoic membranes at temperatures above 40° C. The relationship of these findings to the virulence of influenza viruses is discussed.

Formalin-inactivated polio vaccine has been used in the Netherlands since 1957. Within 3 years all children born in 1945 and later were offered vaccine. In the first years poliovaccine from different manufacturers were used. In 1961 a vaccine produced in the Netherlands by the ‘Rijks Instituut voor de Volksgezondheid’ (National Institute of Public Health) became available and in 1962 the poliomyelitis components were incorporated in a quadruple vaccine, which contains 15 Lf diphtheria, 5 Lf tetanus toxoid and 16 × 109Bordetella pertussis organisms in addition to the three polio components. As an adjuvant this quadruple vaccine contains 1·5 mg. aluminium phosphate per 1 ml. dose. For infants the schedule became three doses at ages 3, 4 and 5 months respectively, followed by a booster dose at the end of the first year. The over-all acceptance rate can be estimated at almost 90% of those eligible, but there were pockets in the population with lower rates.

Since 1924 poliomyelitis has been a notifiable disease. During and after the last World War major epidemics occurred.

The poliomyelitis morbidity rates in the 8 post-vaccination years 1958–65 were compared with those from two preceding 4-year periods 1950–3 and 1954–7. In the 1–4-year-old children, who presented the most vulnerable age group, paralytic poliomyelitis was reduced by about 97 % and in the other age groups this percentage was slightly less. The over-all reduction was 96 %. Comparison of the morbidity rates of non-vaccinated persons in 1958–65 with the rates from 1950–3 and 1954–7 gave an impression of the extent of the herd immunity. These rates were reduced 70–80 % in the children under 15 years and 90–95 % in those over this age. The individual protection given to the vaccinated was calculated from the morbidity rates in non-vaccinated, incompletely and fully vaccinated persons in the 1958–65 period. The reduction of morbidity was 90–95% for children of 1–14 years who got three doses or more and about 85 % for those who had only 1 or 2 doses. Fully vaccinated children, who are profiting from both individual protection and herd immunity, showed a reduction of 97–99 %.

From the data presented it is concluded that vaccination with inactivated poliomyelitis vaccine can provide very effective protection for the individual and the community provided that a vaccine of good quality is used and the rate of acceptance is 75 % or better.

1. A simple method for the long-term viable-preservation of samples of Leptospira suspensions is described. Quantities of about 25 μl., with the addition of 77·5 % glycerol, are introduced into capillary tubes, cooled slowly to −79° C. and stored at that temperature.

2. More than half the attempts were successful in re-establishing growth in culture after storage at −79° C. for periods up to 27 months.

3. The possibility that the method could be used for establishing ‘banks’ of standard Leptospira material for reference is discussed.

Nasal, perineal, axillary and hand swabs collected from 361 patients immediately before operation were examined for Staphylococcus aureus.

The organism was isolated more often from all three skin sites in nasal carriers of Staph. aureus than in non-carriers.

Twelve per cent of the patients, and 4 % of those with negative nose swabs were perineal carriers. Two per cent were heavy perineal carriers of Staph. aureus strains which could not be isolated by direct culture from a nasal swab. Staphylococcal strains from these heavy, independent, perineal carriers were more often resistant to tetracycline than were strains from nasal carriers.

Staphylococcal colonization and infection were studied prospectively in infants, mothers and households after childbirth at home and in hospital. Infants were treated prophylactically with frequent applications of ‘Ster-zac’ hexachlorophane dusting powder. Some were treated in addition with ‘Naseptin’ nasal disinfectant cream.

The incidence of staphylococcal sepsis in infants was much less than before the adoption of hexachlorophane prophylaxis. The sepsis rate was further reduced when ‘Naseptin’ was used in addition to hexachlorophane. Of the two prophylactic agents, hexachlorophane was the more convenient and probably the more effective. ‘Naseptin’ was difficult to employ correctly and unsuitable for routine use.

The treatment of infants with disinfectants reduced nasal carriage markedly in infants and to a smaller extent in mothers. Both agents contributed to the reductions which persisted for some weeks after treatment ceased.

Breast abscesses were almost entirely confined to mothers of infants who became nasal carriers by the second week of life.

Staphylococcal colonization of infant's skin was greater when they wore impervious garments, probably because skin moisture increased.

The conditions for satisfactory fumigation with formaldehyde were investigated using suspensions of Staph. aureus and Ps. aeruginosa dried as drops on strips of polythene or after mixing with cotton dust. In laboratory experiments with controlled concentrations of formaldehyde and water vapour, satisfactory results were obtained at 86 % humidity, but at 32 % humidity the formaldehyde was virtually inactive.

Measurements under field conditions showed that the permanganate method of vaporizing formaldehyde did not vaporize enough water to produce optimum conditions for sterilization, and that great care was necessary in the sealing of rooms. When sterilization was incomplete the surviving organisms were not uniformly distributed within the room.

In the limited circumstances in which fumigation with formaldehyde is thought to be essential, the process should be controlled by estimating the formaldehyde and water vapour concentrations initially and after 3 hr.

Sera from 1029 individuals, 864 from Edinburgh and 165 from Oxford, have been examined for the presence of antibodies to Herpesvirus hominis. The results of the smaller Oxford survey did not reveal a higher incidence of antibody where direct comparison was possible with those from Edinburgh.

The incidence of both complement-fixing and neutralizing antibodies in the sera from 710 people in Edinburgh with ages varying from 1 month to 92 years was compared with the more complete of the earlier surveys, and in particular with that of Holzel et al. (1953) in Manchester, England. This comparison revealed a lower incidence of antibody in people under 25 in Edinburgh in 1965.

Results obtained with sera from medical students in Oxford and Edinburgh and from nurses in Edinburgh were in agreement with those of previous surveys. The low incidence of antibody in these young people emphasized the possible occupational risk of infection from patients and that primary herpetic infection might be encountered more frequently than before in teenagers and young adults.

Nose, throat and finger carriage of Staphylococcus aureus was investigated in a series of random samples from a normal European population.

No evidence for a seasonal trend in carriage was found but the intersample variation between successive random samples was obtained. The mean nasal carrier rate was 29 % with a standard deviation of 7 %.

No association was found between nasal or throat carriage of staphylococci and stay in hospital or antibiotic therapy but respondents with penicillin-resistant staphylococci in the nose had skin infections more frequently than those with penicillin-sensitive strains.

Evidence was obtained for a family, perhaps genetic, ‘predisposition’ to carry staphylococci in the nose.

Neutralization and complement-fixation tests to detect rubella antibody are described. Results of such tests show that between 80 and 95% of adults in England and Wales have neutralizing antibody. The presence of complement-fixing antibody indicates recent infection with rubella virus.

Results are presented showing the development of neutralizing and complement-fixing antibody after rubella.

Antibody tests on children with congenital rubella and their mothers are detailed. It is noted that higher neutralizing antibody titres are found in this group than in the general population.

A broad division of the opportunist mycobacteria has been defined under the name of ‘dysgonic nonchromogens’. The classification was attempted of 68 strains isolated from man in England and Wales, of which 54 at least appeared to be clinically significant. The means used were chiefly drug sensitivity, arylsulphatase activity, specific agglutination, lipid analysis and pathogenicity tests on fowls. On the results, a new definition is proposed for the species M. avium, extending beyond the boundaries of pathogenicity for birds, and a scheme put forward for its division into two types. In addition, two provisional new species and a group of ‘para-avian’ bacilli have been recognized and defined. The remaining 16 strains included six with ‘Battey’ serotypes but otherwise could not be classified. The need for standardization of fowl tests has been noted together with their diminished importance in the field of classification with the emergence of new in vitro methods of examination.