Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-m8qmq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-16T08:48:57.829Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Neurodevelopmental factors associated with schizotypal symptoms among adolescents at risk for schizophrenia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2009

Sydney L. Hans ,
Judith G. Auerbach ,
Keith H. Nuechterlein ,
Robert F. Asarnow ,
Joan Asarnow ,
Benedict Styr  and
Joseph Marcus
Sydney L. Hans*
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
Judith G. Auerbach
Affiliation:
Ben Gurion University Centre for Advanced Study at the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Keith H. Nuechterlein
Affiliation:
University of California, Los Angeles
Robert F. Asarnow
Affiliation:
University of California, Los Angeles
Joan Asarnow
Affiliation:
University of California, Los Angeles
Benedict Styr
Affiliation:
Maccabi Health Services, Israel
Joseph Marcus
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Sydney Hans, School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago, 969 East 60th Street, Chicago, IL 60637; E-mail: shans@uchicago.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Schizophrenia has come to be viewed as a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by genetic vulnerability, stressors during the prenatal period that may be marked by minor physical anomalies and neurobehavioral deficits that emerge in early development. Less is known about the neurodevelopmental origins of schizotypal personality symptoms. The present study examines schizotypal symptoms in Israeli adolescents (mean age = 16.79 years) who have not yet reached the developmental period during which first schizophrenic episode is most likely to emerge: 39 adolescent offspring of parents with schizophrenia, 39 offspring of parents with other psychiatric disorders, and 36 offspring of parents with no history of mental illness. The Semi-Structured Kiddie Interview for Personality Syndromes was used to assess cognitive–perceptual, interpersonal, and disorganized schizotypal symptoms. Interpersonal schizotypal symptoms were more prevalent in the schizophrenia offspring group than in the no-mental-illness offspring group. Among the schizophrenia offspring group, interpersonal, but not cognitive–perceptual, schizotypal symptoms were associated with minor physical anomalies, fine motor dyscoordination, and deficits in executive functioning during adolescence. Among young people whose parents did not have schizophrenia, cognitive–perceptual schizotypal symptoms were correlated with deficits in executive functioning. Adolescent schizotypal symptoms were associated with neurobehavioral symptoms measured during middle childhood in a subgroup of the sample that had been assessed prospectively. Finally, young people who had genetic risk for schizophrenia, minor physical anomalies, and neurobehavioral signs together were at markedly increased risk for symptoms of interpersonal schizotypal symptoms, compared to young people with one or none of these risk factors.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 21 , Issue 4: Precursors and Diverse Pathways to Personality Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Part 2 , November 2009 , pp. 1195 - 1210
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Angst, J., & Clayton, P. (1986). Premorbid personalitiy of depressive, bipolar and schizophrenic patients with special reference to suicidal issues. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 27, 511–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asarnow, J. R., & Talovic, S. (1986). Semi-Structured Kiddie Interview for Personality Syndromes (K-SKIPS). Los Angeles: University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Asarnow, J. R., Tompson, M. C., & Goldstein, M. J. (1994). Childhood-onset schizophrenia: A followup study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 599–617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asarnow, R. F., Granholm, E., & Sherman, T. (1991). Span of apprehension in schizophrenia. In Steinhauer, S. R., Gruzelier, J. H., & Zubin, J. (Eds.), Handbook of schizophrenia: Neuropsychology, psychophysiology and information processing (Vol. 5, pp. 335–370). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Asarnow, R. F., & Nuechterlein, K. H. (1991). Span of Apprehension Program for IBM-compatible microcomputers (Version 4). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Asarnow, R. F., Nuechterlein, K. H., Subotnik, K. L., Fogelson, D. L., Torquato, R. D., Payne, D. L., et al. (2002). Neurocognitive impairments in nonpsychotic parents of children with schizophrenia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The University of California, Los Angeles Family Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 1053–1060.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asarnow, R. F., Steffy, R. A., MacCrimmon, D. J., & Cleghorn, J. M. (1977). An attentional assessment of foster children at risk for schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 267–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Auerbach, J. G., Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L., Fish, B., Hans, S. L., Ingraham, L. J., Marcus, J., et al. (2009). Genetic risk for schizophrenia: Findings from the longitudinal high risk studies. In Kim, Y.-K. (Ed.), Handbook of behavioral genetics. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Baron, M., Gruen, R., Rainer, J. D., Kane, J., Asnis, L., & Lord, S. (1985). A family study of schizophrenic and normal control probands: Implications for the spectrum concept of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 447–455.Google ScholarPubMed
Bearden, C. E., Meyer, S. E., Loewy, R. L., Niendam, T. A., & Cannon, T. D. (2006). The neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: Updated. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 542–569). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Bollini, A. M., Compton, M. T., Esterberg, M. L., Rutland, J., Chien, V. H., & Walker, E. F. (2007). Associations between schizotypal features and indicators of neurological and morphological abnormalities. Schizophrenia Research, 92, 32–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bond, G., & McDonel, E. (1991). Vocational rehabilitation outcomes for persons with psychiatric disabilities: An update. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 1, 9–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calkins, M. E., Curtis, C. E., Grove, W. M., & Iacono, W. G. (2004). Multiple dimensions of schizotypy in first degree relatives of schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 30, 317–325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, M., Kendell, R., Susser, E., & Jones, P. (2003). Prenatal and perinatal risk factors for schizophrenia. In Murray, R. M., Jones, B. P., Susser, E., Van Os, J., & Cannon, M. (Eds.), The epidemiology of schizophrenia (pp. 74–99). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., & Fish, B. (2005). Longitudinal course of schizophrenia spectrum symptoms in offspring of psychiatrically hospitalized mothers. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15, 362–383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapman, L. J., Chapman, J. P., Kwapil, T. R., Eckblad, M., & Zinser, M. C. (1994). Putatively psychosis prone subjects ten years later. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 171–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Cannon, T. D. (1999). Neurodevelopmental processes in the ontogenesis and epigenesis of psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 375–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Condray, R., & Steinhauser, S. R. (1992). Schizotypal personality disorder in individuals with and without schizophrenic relatives: Similarities and contrasts in neurocognitive and clinical functioning. Schizophrenia Research, 7, 33–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corcoran, C., Walker, E., Huot, R., Mittal, V., Tessner, K., Kestler, L. P., et al. (2003). The stress cascade and schizophrenia: Etiology and onset. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 29, 671–692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cornblatt, B., Obuchowski, M., Roberts, S., Pollack, S., & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1999). Cognitive and behavioral precursors of schizophrenia. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 487–508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cornblatt, B. A., Lenzenweger, M. F., Dworkin, R. H., & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1992). Childhood attentional dysfunctions predict social deficits in unaffected adults at risk for schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161(Suppl. 18), 59–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuesta, M. J., Peralta, V., & Caro, F. (1999). Premorbid personality in psychoses. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 25, 801–811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delawalla, Z., Barch, D. M., Eastep, J. L. F., Thomason, E. S., Hanewinkel, M. J., Thompson, P. A., et al. (2006). Factors mediating cognitive deficits and psychopathology among siblings of individuals with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32, 525–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diforio, D., Walker, E. F., & Kestler, L. P. (2000). Executive functions in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 42, 125–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dinn, W. M., Harris, C. L., Aycicegi, A., Greene, P., & Andover, M. S. (2002). Positive and negative schizotypy in a student sample: Neurocognitive and clinical correlates. Schizophrenia Research, 56, 171–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dworkin, R. H. (1990). Patterns of sex differences in negative symptoms and social functioning consistent with separate dimensions of schizophrenic psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 347–349.Google ScholarPubMed
Dworkin, R. H., Cornblatt, B. A., Friedmann, R., Kaplansky, L. M., Lewis, J. A., Rinaldi, A., et al. (1993). Childhood precursors of affective vs. social deficits in adolescents at risk for schiozphrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 563–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Endicott, J., & Spitzer, R. L. (1972). Current and Past Psychopathology Scales (CAPPS): Rationale, reliability, and validity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 27, 678–687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L., Cornblatt, B., Friedman, D., Marcuse, Y., Rutschmann, J., Simmens, S., et al. (1982). Neurological, electrophysiological and attentional deviations in children at risk for schizophrenia. In Nasrallah, H. A. & Henn, F. A. (Eds.), Schizophrenia as a brain disease (pp. 61–98). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L., Rock, D., Roberts, S. A., Janal, M., Kestenbaum, C., Cornblatt, B., et al. (2000). Attention, memory, and motor skills as childhood predictors of schizophrenia-related psychoses: The New York High-Risk Project. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1416–1422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Estes, W. K., & Taylor, H. A. (1966). Visual detection in relation to display size and redundancy of critical elements. Perception and Psychophysics, 1, 9–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fenton, W. S., & McGlashan, T. H. (1989). Risk of schizophrenia in character disorder patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 1280–1284.Google Scholar
Fish, B. (1977). Neurobiologic antecedents of schizophrenia in children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 34, 1297–1313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franke, P., Maier, W., Hardt, J., Hain, C., & Cornblatt, B. A. (1994). Attentional abilities and measures of schizotypy: Their variation and covariation in schizophrenic patients, their siblings, and normal control subjects. Psychiatry Research, 54, 259–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garmezy, N. (1974). Children at risk: the search for the antecedents of schizophrenia. Part 2: Ongoing research programs, issues and intervention. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 9, 55–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giraldez, S., Caro, M. I., Rodrigo, A. M. L., Pineiro, M. P., & Gonzalez, J. L. B. (2000). Assessment of essential components of schizotypy using neurocognitive measures. Psychology in Spain, 4, 183–194.Google Scholar
Gooding, D. C., Tallent, K. A., & Matts, C. W. (2005). Clinical status of at-risk individuals 5 years later: Further validation of the psychometric high-risk strategy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 170–175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gourion, D., Goldberger, C., Bourdel, M.-C., Bayle, F. J., Loo, H., & Krebs, M.-O. (2004). Minor physical anomalies in patients with schizophrenia and their parents: Prevalence and pattern of craniofacial abnormalities. Psychiatry Research, 125, 21–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gourion, D., Goldberger, C., Olie, J. P., & Krebs, M. O. (2004). Neurological and morphological anomalies and the genetic liability to schizophrenia: “A composite phenotype.” Schizophrenia Research, 67, 23–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grant, D. A., & Berg, E. A. (1948). A behavioral analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting to new responses in a Weigl-type card-sorting problem. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 404–411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, M. F., Bracha, H. S., Satz, P., & Christenson, C. (1994). Preliminary evidence for an association between minor physical anomalies and second trimester neurodevelopment in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 53, 119–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, M. F., Satz, P., & Christenson, C. (1994). Minor physical anomalies in schizophrenia patients, bipolar patients, and their siblings. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 433–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grove, W. M., Lebow, B. S., Clementz, B. A., Cerri, A., Medus, C., & Iacono, W. B. (1991). Familial prevalence and coaggregation of schizotypy indicators: A multitrait family study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 115–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, J. G., Siever, L. J., & Spaulding, E. (1983). The search for a schizotype. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 15–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hans, S. L., Auerbach, A. G., Asarnow, J. R., Styr, B., & Marcus, J. (2000). Social adjustment of adolescents at risk for schizophrenia: The Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1406–1414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hans, S. L., Auerbach, J. G., Styr, B., & Marcus, J. (2004). Offspring of schizophrenic parents: Mental disorders during childhood and adolescence. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 30, 303–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hans, S. L., Marcus, J., Henson, L., Auerbach, J. G., & Mirsky, A. F. (1992). Interpersonal behavior of children at risk for schizophrenia. Psychiatry, 55, 314–335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hans, S. L., Marcus, J., Nuechterlein, K. H., Asarnow, R. F., Styr, B., & Auerbach, A. G. (1999a). Neurobehavioral deficits at adolescence in children at risk for schizophrenia: The Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 741–748.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hans, S. L., Marcus, J., Nuechterlein, K. H., Asarnow, R. F., Styr, B., & Auerbach, J. G. (1999b). Neurobehavioral deficits at adolescence in children at risk for schizophrenia: The Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 741–748.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hata, K., Iida, J., Iwasaka, H., Negoro, H., & Kishimoto, T. (2003). Associations between minor physical anomalies and lateral ventricular enlargement in childhood and adolescent onset schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 108, 147–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ingraham, L. J., Chard, F., Wood, M., & Mirsky, A. F. (1988). A Hebrew language version of the Stroop Test. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 67, 187–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ingraham, L. J., & Kety, S. S. (1988). Schizophrenia spectrum disorders. In Tsuang, M. T. & Simpson, J. C. (Eds.), Handbook of schizophrenia: Nosology, epidemiology and genetics of schizphrenia (Vol. 3, pp. 117–137). New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Ismail, B., Cantor-Graae, E., & McNeil, T. F. (1998). Minor physical anomalies in schizophrenic patients and their siblings. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1695–1702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ismail, B., Cantor-Graae, E., & McNeil, T. F. (2000). Minor physical anomalies in schizophrenia: Cognitive, neurological and other clinical correlates. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 34, 45–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, P., Rodgers, B., Murray, R., & Marmot, M. (1994). Child developmental risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet, 344, 1398–1402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K., & Diehl, S. R. (1993). The genetics of schizophrenia: A current genetic–epidemiological perspective. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 263–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendler, K. S., & Gardner, C. O. (1997). The risk for psychiatric disorders in relatives of schizophrenic and control probands: A comparison of three independent studies. Psychological Medicine, 27, 411–419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S., McGuire, M., Gruenberg, A. M., & Walsh, D. (1995). Schizotypal symptoms and signs in the Roscommon Family Study: Their factor structure and familial relationship with psychotic and affective disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 296–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kety, S. S. (1983). Mental illness in the biological and adoptive relatives of schizophrenic adoptees: Findings relevant to genetic and environmental factors in etiology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 720–727.Google ScholarPubMed
Laurent, A., Biloa-Tang, M., Bougerol, T., Duly, D., Anchisi, A.-M., Bosson, J.-L., et al. (2000). Executive/attentional performance and measures of schizotypy in patients with schizophrenia and in their nonpsychotic first-degree relatives. Schizophrenia Research, 46, 269–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawrie, S. M., Byrne, M., Miller, P., Hodges, A., Clafferty, R. A., Owens, D. G. C., et al. (2001). Neurodevelopmental indices and the development of psychotic symptoms in subjects at high risk of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 178, 524–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lenzenweger, M. F., & Korfine, L. (1994). Perceptual aberrations, schizotypy, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 345–357.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons, M. J., Merla, M. E., Young, L., & Kremen, W. S. (1991). Impaired neuropsychological functioning in symptomatic volunteers with schizotypy: Preliminary findings. Biological Psychiatry, 30, 424–426.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malmberg, A., Lewis, G., David, A., & Allebeck, P. (1998). Premorbid adjustment and personality in people with schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 308–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcus, J., Auerbach, J., Wilkinson, L., & Burack, C. M. (1981). Infants at risk for schizophrenia: The Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 703–713.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcus, J., Hans, S., Byhouwer, B., & Norem, J. (1985). Relationships among neurological functioning, intelligence quotients and physical anomalies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 11, 101–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcus, J., Hans, S. L., Auerbach, J. G., & Auerbach, A. G. (1993). Children at risk for schizophrenia: The Jerusalem Infant Development Study. II. Neurobehavioral deficits at school age. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 797–809.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcus, J., Hans, S. L., Lewow, E., Wilkinson, L., & Burack, C. M. (1985). Neurological findings in high-risk children: Childhood assessment and 5-year followup. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 11, 85–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marenco, S., & Weinberger, D. R. (2000). The neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia: Following a trail of evidence from cradle to grave. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 501–527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNeil, T. F., Blennow, G., & Lundberg, L. (1992). Congenital malformations and structural developmental anomalies in groups at high risk for psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 57–61.Google ScholarPubMed
McNeil, T. F., & Cantor-Graae, E. (2000). Neuromotor markers of risk for schizophrenia. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34(Suppl.), S86–S90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNeil, T. F., Harty, B., Blennow, G., & Cantor-Graae, E. (1993). Neuromotor deviation in offspring of psychotic mothers: A selective developmental deficiency in two groups of children at heightened psychiatric risk? Journal of Psychiatric Research, 27, 39–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meehl, P. E. (1962). Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia. American Psychologist, 17, 827–838.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mehlum, L., Friis, S., Irion, T., Johns, S., Karterud, S., Vaglum, P., et al. (1991). Personality disorders 2–5 years after treatment: A prospective follow-up study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 84, 72–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, P., Byrne, M., Hodges, A., Lawrie, S. M., Owens, D. B., & Johnstone, E. C. (2002). Schizotypal components in people at high risk of developing schizophrenia: Early findings from the Edinburgh High-Risk Study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 179–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mirsky, A. (1987). Behavioral and psychophysiological markers of disordered attention. Environmental Health Perspectives, 74, 191–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitropoulou, V., Harvey, L. A., Maldari, L. A., Moriarty, P. J., New, A. S., Silverman, J. M., et al. (2002). Neuropsychological performance in schizotypal personality disorder: Evidence regarding diagnostic specificity. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 1175–1182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mittal, V. A., Dhruv, S., Tessner, K. D., Walder, D. J., & Walker, E. F. (2007). The relations among putative biorisk markers in schizotypal adolescents: Minor physical anomalies, movement abnormalities, and salivary cortisol. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 1179–1186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mittal, V. A., Tessner, K. D., Trottman, H. D., Esterberg, M., Dhruv, S. H., Simeonova, D. I., et al. (2007). Movement abnormalities and the progression of prodromal symptomatology in adolescents at risk for psychotic disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 260–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noguchi, H., Hori, H., & Kunugi, H. (2008). Schizotypal traits and cognitive function in healthy adults. Psychiatry Research, 161, 162–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nuechterlein, K. (1991). Vigilance in schizophrenia and related disorders. In Steinhauer, S. R., Gruzelier, J. H., & Zubin, J. (Eds.), Handbook of schizophrenia: Neuropsychology, psychophysiology and information processing (Vol. 5, pp. 397–433). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Nuechterlein, K. H. (1983). Signal detection in vigilance tasks and behavioral attributes among offspring of schizophrenic mothers and among hyperactive children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 92, 4–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nuechterlein, K. H., & Asarnow, R. F. (1990). Continuous Performance Test (CPT) program for IBM-compatible microcomputers, Version 4, for Degraded Stimulus CPT. Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
O'Callaghan, E., Larkin, C., Kinsella, A., & Waddington, J. L. (1991). Familial, obstetric, and other clinical correlates of minor physical anomalies in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 479–483.Google ScholarPubMed
Orvaschel, H., Mednick, S., Schulsinger, F., & Rock, D. (1979). The children of psychiatrically disturbed parents: Differences as a function of the sex of the sick parent. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 691–695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poreh, A. M., Ross, T. P., & Whitman, R. D. (1995). Reexamination of executive functions in psychosis-prone college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 535–539.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porteus, S. D. (1950). The Porteus Maze Test and intelligence. Palo Alto, CA: Pacific Books.Google Scholar
Raine, A. (1991). The SPQ: A scale for the assessment of schizotypal personality based on DSM-III-R criteria. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 17, 555–564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A. (2006). Schizotypal personality: Neurodevelopmental and psychosocial trajectories. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 291–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reitan, R. M. (1958). Validity of the Trail-Making Test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 8, 271–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, C. A., Raine, A., Mellingen, K., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (2000). Three-factor model of schizotypal personality: Invariance across culture, gender, religious affiliation, family adversity, and psychopathology. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26, 603–618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenthal, D. (1970). Genetic theory and abnormal behavior. New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Rosvold, H. E., Mirsky, A. F., Sarason, I., Bransome, E. D. Jr., & Beck, L. H. (1956). A continuous performance test of brain damage. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 20, 343–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutschmann, J., Cornblatt, B., & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1977). Sustained attention in children at risk for schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 34, 571–575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutschmann, J., Cornblatt, B., & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1986). Sustained attention in children at risk for schizophrenia: Findings with two visual continuous performance tests in a new sample. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14, 365–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siever, L. J., & Davis, K. L. (2004). The pathophysiology of schizophrenia disorders: Perspectives from the spectrum. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 398–413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snitz, B. E., MacDonald, A. W. III, & Carter, C. S. (2006). Cognitive deficits in unaffected first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients: A meta-analytic review of putative endophenotypes. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32, 179–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spitzer, R. L., & Endicott, J. (1975). Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia—Lifetime version. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., Endicott, J., & Robins, E. (1975). Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC) for a selected group of functional disorders (2nd ed.). New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research.Google Scholar
Spitznagel, M. B., & Suhr, J. A. (2002). Executive function deficits associated with symptoms of schizotypy and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Research, 110, 151–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spring, B., Weinstein, L., Freeman, R., & Thompson, S. (1991). Selective attention in schizophrenia. In Steinhauer, S. R. & Gruzelier, J. H. (Eds.), Handbook of schizophrenia: Neuropsychology, psychophysiology, and information processing (Vol. 5, pp. 371–396). New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Squires-Wheeler, E., Friedman, D., Amminger, G. P., Skodol, A., Looser-Ott, S., Roberts, S., et al. (1997). Negative and positive dimensions of schizotypal personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 11, 285–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Squires-Wheeler, E., Skodol, A., & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1992). The assessment of schizotypal features over two points in time. Schizophrenia Research, 6, 75–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643–662.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suhr, J. A. (1997). Executive functioning deficits in hypothetically psychosis-prone college students. Schizophrenia Research, 27, 29–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tienari, P., Wynne, L. C., Laksy, K., Moring, J., Nieminen, P., Sorri, A., et al. (2003). Genetic boundaries of the schizophrenia spectrum: Evidence from the Finnish adoptive family study of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1587–1584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Touwen, B. C., & Prechtl, H. F. R. (1970). The neurological examination of the child with minor nervous dysfunction. In Clinics in developmental medicine No. 8. London: William Heinemann Medical Books Ltd.Google Scholar
Trestman, R. L., Keefe, R. S. E., Mitropoulou, V., Harvey, P. D., de Vegvar, M. L., Lees-Roitman, S., et al. (1995). Cognitive function and biological correlates of cognitive performance in schizotypal personality disorder. Psychiatry Research, 59, 127–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voglmaier, M. M., Seidman, L. J., Niznikiewicz, M. A., Dickey, C. C., Shenton, M. E., & McCarley, R. W. (2005). A comparative profile analysis of neuropsychological function in men and women with schizotypal personality disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 74, 43–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voglmaier, M. M., Seidman, L. J., Salisbury, D., & McCarley, R. W. (1997). Neuropsychological dysfunction in schizotypal personality disorder: A profile analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 41, 530–540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vollema, M. G., & Postma, B. (2002). Neurocognitive correlates of schizotypy in first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 28, 367–377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waddington, J. L., Lane, A., Scully, P., Meagher, D., Quinn, J., Larkin, C., et al. (1999). Early cerebro-craniofacial dysmorphogenesis in schizophrenia: A lifetime trajectory model from neurodevelopmental basis to “neuroprogressive” process. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 33, 477–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waldrop, M. F., & Halverson, C. F. (1971). Minor physical anomalies and hyperactive behavior in young children. In Hellmuth, J. (Ed.), Exceptional infant: Studies in abnormalities (pp. 342–380). New York: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Walker, E., Lewis, N., Loewy, R., & Palyo, S. (1999). Motor dysfunction and risk for schizophrenia. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 509–523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, E. F. (1991). Schizophrenia: A life-course developmental perspective. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Walker, E. F., Grimes, K. E., & Davis, D. M. (1993). Childhood precursors of schizophrenia: Facial expressions of emotion. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1654–1660.Google ScholarPubMed
Walker, E. F., Kestler, L. P., Bollini, A. M., & Hochman, K. M. (2004). Schizophrenia: Etiology and course. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 401–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, E. F., & Lewine, R. J. (1994). Prediction of adult-onset schizophrenia from childhood home movies of the patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 1052–1056.Google Scholar
Walker, E. F., Logan, C. B., & Walder, D. (1999). Indicators of neurodevelopmental abnormality in schizotypal personality disorder. Psychiatric Annals, 29, 132–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watt, N. F., Anthony, E. J., Wynne, L. C., & Rolf, J. E. (Eds.). (1984). Children at risk for schizophrenia: A longitudinal perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Webb, C. T., & Levinson, D. F. (1993). Schizotypal and paranoid personality disorder in the relatives of patients with schizophrenia and affective disorders: A review. Schizophrenia Research, 11, 117–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wechsler, D. (1974). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised. New York: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Weinberg, S. M., Jenkins, E. A., Marazita, M. L., & Maher, B. S. (2007). Minor physical anomalies in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 89, 72–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinstein, D. D., Diforio, D., Schiffman, J., Walker, E., & Bonsall, R. (1999). Minor physical anomalies, dermatoglyphic asymmetries, and cortisol levels in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 617–623.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yung, A. R., Phillips, L. J., Yuen, H. P., Francey, S. M., McFarlane, C. A., Hallgren, M., et al. (2003). Psychosis predictions: 12-month follow up of a high-risk (“prodromal”) group. Schizophrenia Research, 60, 21–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed