Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-qxdb6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T07:27:34.662Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Infant stranger fear trajectories predict anxious behaviors and diurnal cortisol rhythm during childhood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 March 2017

Carol A. Van Hulle ,
Mollie N. Moore ,
Kathryn Lemery-Chalfant ,
H. Hill Goldsmith  and
Rebecca J. Brooker
Carol A. Van Hulle*
Affiliation:
University of Wisconsin–Madison
Mollie N. Moore
Affiliation:
University of Wisconsin–Madison
Kathryn Lemery-Chalfant
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
H. Hill Goldsmith
Affiliation:
University of Wisconsin–Madison
Rebecca J. Brooker
Affiliation:
Montana State University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Carol Van Hulle, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705; E-mail: cavanhulle@wisc.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although a robust literature has linked stable, high levels of fear across childhood to increased risk for anxiety problems, less is known about alternative pathways to anxiety. We tested two putatively normative developmental pathways of early fearfulness for their distinct associations with behavioral (anxiety-related behaviors and symptoms) and biological (diurnal cortisol) markers of anxiety risk in middle childhood in a community-based sample (n = 107). Steeper increases in fear from 6 to 36 months predicted more parent-reported anxiety symptoms at age 8 years. In addition, children who exhibited steep increases in fear during infancy were overrepresented among children with diagnoses of separation anxiety disorder at age 8 years. Finally, we showed that steeper increases in fearfulness in infancy predicted flatter slopes of diurnal cortisol at age 8 years for girls. Thus, differences in stranger fear across infancy may indicate varying degrees of risk for anxious behaviors in later childhood.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 29 , Issue 3 , August 2017 , pp. 1119 - 1130
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Data collection was supported by Grants R37 MH50560 (H.H.G., Principal Investigator) and R01 MH59785 (H.H.G. and K.L.-C., Principal Investigators) from the National Institute of Mental Health. The writing of this manuscript was partially supported by Grants T32 MH018931 (Program Director, Davidson), K01 MH100240 (R.J.B., Principal Investigator), and P50 MH100031 (Center Director, Davidson) from the National Institute of Mental Health. Infrastructure support was provided by the Waisman Center via P30 HD03352 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. We thank the families who participated in this study and the staff members who helped with the recruitment and data collection.

References

Albano, A. M., Chorpita, B. F., & Barlow, D. H. (2003). Childhood anxiety disorders. In Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. J. (Eds.), Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 279–329). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Altemus, M., Sarvaiya, N., & Epperson, C. N. (2014). Sex differences in anxiety and depression clinical perspectives. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 35, 320–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Pychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed. text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Andersson, K., Bohlin, G., & Hagekull, B. (1999). Early temperament and stranger wariness as predictors of social inhibition in 2-year-olds. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 17, 421–434. doi:10.1348/026151099165375 Google Scholar
Armstrong, J., & Goldstein, L. H. (2003). The MacArthur Working Group on Outcome Assessment: Manual for the MacArthur Health and Behavior Questionnaire (HBQ 1.0). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh, MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Psychopathology and Development.Google Scholar
Bayer, J. K., Sanson, A. V., & Hemphill, S. A. (2006). Parent influences on early childhood internalizing difficulties. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27, 542–559. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2006.08.002.Google Scholar
Beesdo, K., Bittner, A., Pine, D. S., Stein, M. B., Hofler, M., Lieb, R., & Wittchen, H.-U. (2007). Incidence of social anxiety disorder and the consistent risk for secondary depression in the first three decades of life. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 903–912. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.8.903 Google Scholar
Beesdo, K., Knappe, S., & Pine, D. S. (2009). Anxiety and anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Developmental issues and implications for DSM-V. Psychiatric Clinics in North America, 32, 483–524.Google Scholar
Bell-Dolan, D. J., Last, C. G., & Strauss, C. C. (1990). Symptoms of anxiety disorders in normal children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 759–765. doi:10.1097/00004583-199009000-00014 Google Scholar
Biederman, J., Hirshfeld-Becker, D. R., Rosenbaum, J. F., Herot, C., Friedman, D., Snidman, N., … Faraone, S. V. (2001). Further evidence of association between behavioral inhibition and social anxiety in children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1673–1679. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.10.1673 Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss (Vol. 2). New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Braungart-Rieker, J. M., Hill-Soderlund, A. L., & Karrass, J. (2010). Fear and anger reactivity trajectories from 4 to 16 months: The roles of temperament, regulation, and maternal sensitivity. Developmental Psychology, 46, 791.Google Scholar
Bridges, K. M. B. (1932). Emotional development in early infancy. Child Development, 3, 324–341. doi:10.2307/1125359 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooker, R. J., Buss, K. A., Lemery-Chalfant, K., Aksan, N., Davidson, R. J., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2013). The development of stranger fear in infancy and toddlerhood: Normative development, individual differences, antecedents, and outcomes. Developmental Science, 16, 864–878. doi:10.1111/desc.12058 Google Scholar
Brooker, R. J., Davidson, R. J., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2016). Maternal negative affect during infancy is linked to disrupted patterns of diurnal cortisol and alpha asymmetry across contexts during childhood. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 142, 274–290. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.08.011 Google Scholar
Chronis-Tuscano, A., Degnan, K. A., Pine, D. S., Perez-Edgar, K., Henderson, H. A., Diaz, Y., … Fox, N. A. (2009). Stable early maternal report of behavioral inhibition predicts lifetime social anxiety disorder in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 928–935. doi.10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181ae09df CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.Google Scholar
Clauss, J. A., & Blackford, J. U. (2012). Behavioral inhibition and risk for developing social anxiety disorder: A meta-analytic study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51, 1066–1075. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.04.009 Google Scholar
Copeland, W. E., Angold, A., Shanahan, L., & Costello, E. J. (2014). Longitudinal patterns of anxiety from childhood to adulthood: The Great Smoky Mountains Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 53, 21–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Côté, S., Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D., Zoccolillo, M., & Vitaro, F. (2002). The development of impulsivity, fearfulness, and helpfulness during childhood: Patterns of consistency and change in the trajectories of boys and girls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 609–618. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00050 Google Scholar
Cox, F. N., & Campbell, D. (1968). Young children in a new situation with and without their mothers. Child Development, 39, 123–131.Google Scholar
Dadds, M. R., & Roth, J. H. (2001). Family processes in the development of anxiety problems. In Vasey, M. W. & Dadds, M. R. (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (pp. 278–303). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Egger, H. L., & Angold, A. (2006). Common emotional and behavioral disorders in preschool children: Presentation, nosology, and epidemiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 313–337. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01618.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006). Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 33–72. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33 Google Scholar
Enders, C. K. (2011). Analyzing longitudinal data with missing values. Rehabilitation Psychology, 56, 267–288. doi:10.1037/a0025579 Google Scholar
Essex, M. J., Klein, M. H., Cho, E., & Kalin, N. H. (2002). Maternal stress beginning in infancy may sensitize children to later stress exposure: Effects on cortisol and behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 776–784. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01553-6 Google Scholar
Gartstein, M. A., Bridgett, D. J., Rothbart, M. K., Robertson, C., Iddins, E., Ramsay, K., & Schlect, S. (2010). A latent growth examination of fear development in infancy: Contributions of maternal depression and the risk for toddler anxiety. Developmental Psychology, 46, 651–668. doi:10.1037/a0018898 Google Scholar
Gershaw, N. J., & Schwarz, J. C. (1971). The effects of a familiar toy and mother's presence on exploratory and attachment behaviors in young children. Child Development, 42, 1662–1666. doi:10.2307/1127941 Google Scholar
Gilissen, R., Koolstra, C., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van der Veer, R. (2007). Physiological reactions of preschoolers to fear-inducing film clips: Effects of temperamental fearfulness and the quality of the parent-child relationship. Developmental Psychobiology, 49, 187–195.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, H. H. (1996). Studying temperament via construction of the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire. Child Development, 67, 218–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldsmith, H. H., Reilly, J., Lemery, K. S., Longley, S., & Prescott, A. (1999). The Laboratory Temperament Assessment: Preschool version. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Greaves-Lord, K., Ferdinand, R. F., Oldehinkel, A. J., Sondeijker, F. E. P. L., Ormel, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2007). Higher cortisol awakening response in young adolescents with persistent anxiety problems. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 116, 137–144. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01001.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R. (1992). Reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system to stressors in normal infants and children. Pediatrics, 90, 491–497.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Larson, M. C., Hertsgaard, L., Harris, M. L., & Brodersen, L. (1992). The stressfulness of separation among nine-month-old infants: Effects of social context variables and infant temperament. Child Development, 63, 290–303. doi:10.2307/1131479 Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085605 Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Tout, K., de Haan, N. M., Pierce, S., & Stansbury, K. (1997). Temperament, social competence, and adrenocortical activity in preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 31, 65–85.Google Scholar
Hill-Soderlund, A. L., & Braungart-Rieker, J. M. (2008). Early individual differences in temperamental reactivity and regulation: Implications for effortful control in early childhood. Infant Behavior and Development, 31, 386–397. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2007.12.007 Google Scholar
Hirshfeld, D. R., Rosenbaum, J. F., Biederman, J., Bolduc, E. A., Faraone, S. V., Snidman, N., … Kagan, J. (1992). Stable behavioral inhibition and its association with anxiety disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 103–111.Google Scholar
Jung, T., & Wickrama, K. A. S. (2008). An introduction to latent class growth analysis and growth mixture modeling. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 302–317. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00054.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagan, J. (1994). Galen's prophecy: Temperament in human nature. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Kiel, E. J., & Buss, K. A. (2011). Prospective relations among fearful temperament, protective parenting, and social withdrawal: The role of maternal accuracy in a moderated mediation framework. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 953–966. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9516-4 Google Scholar
Klein, D. N., Dyson, M. W., Kujawa, A. J., & Kotov, R. (2012). Temperament and internalizing disorders. In Zentner, M. & Bates, J. E. (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 541–561). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Klimes-Dougan, B., Hastings, P. D., Granger, D. A., Usher, B., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2001). Adrenocortical activity in at-risk and normally developing adolescents: Individual differences in salivary cortisol basal levels, diurnal variation, and responses to social challenges. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 695–719.Google Scholar
Larson, M. C., White, B. P., Cochran, A., Donzella, B., & Gunnar, M. (1998). Dampening of the cortisol response to handling at 3 months in human infants and its relation to sleep, circadian cortisol activity, and behavioral distress. Developmental Psychobiology, 33, 327–337.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, P. M., Gotlib, I. H., Lewinsohn, M., Seeley, J. R., & Allen, N. B. (1998). Gender differences in anxiety disorders and anxiety symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 109–117. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.1.109 Google Scholar
Lewinsohn, P. M., Zinbarg, R., Seeley, J. R., Lewinsohn, M., & Sack, W. H. (1997). Lifetime comorbidity among anxiety disorders and between anxiety disorders and other mental disorders in adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11, 377–394. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(97)00017-0 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marks, I. (1987). The development of normal fear: A review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28, 667–697. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1987.tb01552.x Google Scholar
Mash, E. J., & Barkley, R. A. (2003). Child psychopathology. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
McLean, C. P., Asnaani, A., Litz, B. T., & Hofmann, S. G. (2011). Gender differences in anxiety disorders: Prevalence, course of illness, comorbidity and burden of illness. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 1027–1035. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.03.006 Google Scholar
Mian, N. D., Godoy, L., Briggs-Gowan, M. J., & Carter, A. S. (2012). Patterns of anxiety symptoms in toddlers and preschool-age children: Evidence of early differentiation. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 102–110.Google Scholar
Muris, P., van Brakel, A. M., Arntz, A., & Schouten, E. (2011). Behavioral inhibition as a risk factor for the development of childhood anxiety disorders: A longitudinal study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 157–170. doi:10.1007/s10826-010-9365-8 Google Scholar
Muthén, B. (2004). Latent variable analysis: Growth mixture modeling and related techniques for longitudinal data. In Kaplan, D. (Ed.), Handbook of quantitative methodology for social sciences (pp. 345–368). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2015). Mplus user's guide. Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Pendry, P., & Adam, E. K. (2007). Associations between parents’ marital functioning, maternal parenting quality, maternal emotion and child cortisol levels. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 218–231. doi:10.1177/0165025407074634 Google Scholar
Pérez-Edgar, K., Bar-Haim, Y., McDermott, J. M., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2010). Attention biases to threat and behavioral inhibition in early childhood shape adolescent social withdrawal. Emotion, 10, 349. doi:10.1037/a0018486 Google Scholar
Pérez-Edgar, K., Reeb-Sutherland, B. C., McDermott, J. M., White, L. K., Henderson, H. A., Degnan, K. A., … Fox, N. A. (2011). Attention biases to threat link behavioral inhibition to social withdrawal over time in very young children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 885–895. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9495-5 Google Scholar
Pine, D. S., Cohen, P., Gurley, D., Brook, J., & Ma, Y. (1998). The risk for early-adulthood anxiety and depressive disorders in adolescents with anxiety and depressive disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 56–64. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.55.1.56 Google Scholar
Poulton, R., Milne, B. J., Craske, M. G., & Menzies, R. G. (2001). A longitudinal study of the etiology of separation anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1395–1410. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00105-4 Google Scholar
Rheingold, H. L., & Eckerman, C. O. (1973). Fear of the stranger: A critical examination. In Reese, H. W. (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Rosen, J. B., & Schulkin, J. (1998). From normal fear to pathological anxiety. Psychological Review, 105, 325–350. doi:10.1037/0033295X.105.2.325 Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K. (1981). Measurement of temperament in infancy. Child Development, 52, 569–578.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The Children's Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394–1408. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00355 Google Scholar
Ruttle, P. L., Maslowsky, J., Armstrong, J. M., Burk, L. R., & Essex, M. J. (2015). Longitudinal associations between diurnal cortisol slope and alcohol use across adolescence: A seven-year prospective study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 56, 23–28. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.02.019 Google Scholar
Salis, K. L., Bernard, K., Black, S. R., Dougherty, L. R., & Klein, D. (2016). Examining the concurrent and longitudinal relationship between diurnal cortisol rhythms and conduct problems during childhood. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 71, 147–154. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.05.021 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saridjan, N. S., Velders, F. P., Jaddoe, V. W., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., & Tiemeier, H. (2014). The longitudinal association of the diurnal cortisol rhythm with internalizing and externalizing problems in pre-schoolers. The Generation R Study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 50, 118–129. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.08.008 Google Scholar
Scher, A., Hall, W. A., Zaidman-Zait, A., & Weinberg, J. (2010). Sleep quality, cortisol levels, and behavioral regulation in toddlers. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 44–53. doi:10.1002/dev.20410 Google Scholar
Schmidt, N. L., Van Hulle, C. A., Brooker, R. J., Meyer, L. R., Lemery-Chalfant, K., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2013). Wisconsin Twin Research: Early development, childhood psychopathology, autism, and sensory over-responsivity. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 16, 376–384. doi:10.1017/thg.2012.105 Google Scholar
Schulkin, J., McEwen, B. S., & Gold, P. W. (1994). Allostasis, amygdala, and anticipatory angst. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 18, 385–396. doi:10.1016/0149-7634(94)90051-5 Google Scholar
Schwartz, C. E., Snidman, N., & Kagan, J. (1999). Adolescent social anxiety as an outcome of inhibited temperament in childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1008–1015. doi:10.1097/00004583-199908000-00017 Google Scholar
Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): Description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38.Google Scholar
Shirtcliff, E. A., & Essex, M. J. (2008). Concurrent and longitudinal associations of basal and diurnal cortisol with mental health symptoms in early adolescence. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 690–703. doi:10.1002/dev.20336 Google Scholar
Shirtcliff, E. A., Granger, D. A., Booth, A., & Johnson, D. (2005). Low salivary cortisol levels and externalizing behavior problems in youth. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 167–184. doi:10.1017/S0954579405050091 Google Scholar
Shirtcliff, E. A., & Ruttle, P. (2010). Immunological and neuroendocrine dysregulation following early deprivation and stress. In Brisch, K. H. (Ed.), Attachment and early disorders of development. Munich: Klett-Cotta.Google Scholar
Smider, N. A., Essex, M. J., Kalin, N. H., Buss, K. A., Klein, M. H., Davidson, R. J., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2002). Salivary cortisol as a predictor of socioemotional adjustment during kindergarten: A prospective study. Child Development, 73, 75–92. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00393 Google Scholar
Spence, S. H., Rapee, R., McDonald, C., & Ingram, M. (2001). The structure of anxiety symptoms among preschoolers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1293–1316. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00098-X Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1977). Wariness of strangers and the study of infant development. Child Development, 48, 731–746.Google Scholar
Stanger, C., & Lewis, M. (1993). Agreement among parents, teachers, and children on internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 107–116. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2201_11 Google Scholar
Van den Bergh, B. R. H., Van Calster, B., Pinna Puissant, S., & Van Huffel, S. (2008). Self-reported symptoms of depressed mood, trait anxiety and aggressive behavior in post-pubertal adolescents: Associations with diurnal cortisol profiles. Hormones and Behavior, 54, 253–257. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.03.015 Google Scholar
Van Hulle, C. A., Shirtcliff, E. A., Lemery-Chalfant, K., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2012). Genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in cortisol level and circadian rhythm in middle childhood. Hormones and Behavior, 62, 36–42. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.04.014 Google Scholar
Vermeer, H. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2006). Children's elevated cortisol levels at daycare: A review and meta-analysis. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21, 390–401. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.07.004 Google Scholar
Westenberg, P. M., Gullone, E., Bokhorst, C. L., Heyne, D. A., & King, N. J. (2007). Social evaluation fear in childhood and adolescence: Normative developmental course and continuity of individual differences. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 25, 471–483. doi:10.1348/026151006X173099 Google Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., Klimes-Dougan, B., & Slattery, M. J. (2000). Internalizing problems of childhood and adolescence: Prospects, pitfalls, and progress in understanding the development of anxiety and depression. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 443–446.Google Scholar