Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-dnltx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-16T18:14:59.752Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Extending extant models of the pathogenesis of borderline personality disorder to childhood borderline personality symptoms: The roles of affective dysfunction, disinhibition, and self- and emotion-regulation deficits

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2009

Kim L. Gratz ,
Matthew T. Tull ,
Elizabeth K. Reynolds ,
Courtney L. Bagge ,
Robert D. Latzman ,
Stacey B. Daughters  and
C. W. Lejuez
Kim L. Gratz*
Affiliation:
University of Mississippi Medical Center
Matthew T. Tull
Affiliation:
University of Mississippi Medical Center
Elizabeth K. Reynolds
Affiliation:
University of Maryland, College Park
Courtney L. Bagge
Affiliation:
University of Mississippi Medical Center
Robert D. Latzman
Affiliation:
University of Mississippi Medical Center
Stacey B. Daughters
Affiliation:
University of Maryland, College Park
C. W. Lejuez
Affiliation:
University of Maryland, College Park
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Kim L. Gratz, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216; E-mail: klgratz@aol.com.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although research has been conducted on the course, consequences, and correlates of borderline personality disorder (BPD), little is known about its emergence in childhood, and no studies have examined the extent to which theoretical models of the pathogenesis of BPD in adults are applicable to the correlates of borderline personality symptoms in children. The goal of this study was to examine the interrelationships between two BPD-relevant personality traits (affective dysfunction and disinhibition), self- and emotion-regulation deficits, and childhood borderline personality symptoms among 263 children aged 9 to 13. We predicted that affective dysfunction, disinhibition, and their interaction would be associated with childhood borderline personality symptoms, and that self- and emotion-regulation deficits would mediate these relationships. Results provided support for the roles of both affective dysfunction and disinhibition (in the form of sensation seeking) in childhood borderline personality symptoms, as well as their hypothesized interaction. Further, both self- and emotion-regulation deficits partially mediated the relationship between affective dysfunction and childhood borderline personality symptoms. Finally, results provided evidence of different gender-based pathways to childhood borderline personality symptoms, suggesting that models of BPD among adults are more relevant to understanding the factors associated with borderline personality symptoms among girls than boys.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 21 , Issue 4: Precursors and Diverse Pathways to Personality Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Part 2 , November 2009 , pp. 1263 - 1291
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ad-Dab'Bagh, Y., & Greenfield, B. (2001). Multiple complex developmental disorder: The “multiple and complex” evolution of the “childhood borderline syndrome” construct. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 954–964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Aluja, A., Cuevas, L., Garcia, L. F., & Garcia, O. (2007). Zuckerman's personality model predicts MCMI-III personality disorders. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 1311–1321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.Google Scholar
Asendorpf, J. B., & van Aken, M. A. (1999). Resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled personality prototypes in childhood: Replicability, predictive power, and the trait-type issue. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 77, 815–832.Google ScholarPubMed
Aspelmeier, J. E., Elliot, A. N., & Smith, C. H. (2007). Childhood sexual abuse, attachment, and trauma symptoms in college females: The moderating role of attachment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31, 549–566.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barone, L. (2003). Developmental protective and risk factors in borderline personality disorder: A study using the Adult Attachment Interview. Attachment and Human Development, 5, 64–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, R. F. (1998). The self. In Gilbert, D. T., Fiske, S. T., & Gardner, L. (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 680–740). New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Bemporad, J. R., Smith, H. F., Hanson, G., & Cicchetti, D. (1982). Borderline syndromes in childhood: Criteria for diagnosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 596–602.Google ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, D. P., Cohen, P., Velez, C. N., Schwab-Stone, M., Siever, L. J., & Shinsato, L. (1993). Prevalence and stability of the DSM-III-R personality disorders in a community-based survey of adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1237–1243.Google Scholar
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In Collins, W. A. (Ed.), Development of cognition, affect, and social relations. The Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 39–101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Block, J., Block, J. H., & Keyes, S. (1988). Longitudinally foretelling drug usage in adolescence: Early childhood personality and environmental precursors. Child Development, 59, 336–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornovalova, M. A., Gratz, K. L., Daughters, S. B., Bettina, N., Delany-Brumsey, A., Lynch, T. R., et al. (2008). A multimodal assessment of the relationship between emotion dysregulation and borderline personality disorder among inner-city substance users in residential treatment. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, 717–726.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornovalova, M. A., Gratz, K. L., Delany-Brumsey, A., Paulson, A., & Lejuez, C. W. (2006). Temperamental and environmental risk factors for borderline personality disorder among inner-city substance users in residential treatment. Journal of Personality Disorders, 20, 218–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calkins, S. D., & Johnson, M. C. (1998). Toddler regulation of distress to frustrating events: Temperamental and maternal correlates. Infant Behavior and Development, 21, 379–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, S. M., & Wang, T. S. (2007). Inhibitory control and emotion regulation in preschool children. Cognitive Development, 22, 489–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (2001). Youth risk behavior surveillance system. Atlanta, GA: Author.Google Scholar
Chorpita, B. F., Moffitt, C. E., & Gray, J. (2005). Psychometric properties of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale in a clinical sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 309–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chorpita, B. F., Yim, L., Moffitt, C., Umemoto, L. A., & Francis, S. E. (2000). Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: A revised child anxiety and depression scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 835–855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry, 53, 96–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 6–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2009). The past achievements and future promises of developmental psychopathology: The coming of age of a discipline. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 16–25.Google ScholarPubMed
Cohen, P., & Crawford, T. N. (2005). Developmental issues. In Oldham, J. M., Skodol, A. E., & Bender, D. S. (Eds.), The textbook of personality disorders (pp. 171–185). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & Teti, L. O. (1994). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation: A clinical perspective. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3, Serial No. 240), 73–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, R. P., Litman, J. A., & Spielberger, C. D. (2004). The measurement of perceptual curiosity. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1127–1141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coolidge, F. L. (2005). Coolidge Personality and Neuropsychological Inventory for Children manual: CPNI. Colorado Springs, CO: Author.Google Scholar
Coolidge, F. L., Segal, D. L., Stewart, S. E., & Ellett, J. A. (2000). Neuropsychological dysfunction in children with borderline personality disorder features: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 554–561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coolidge, F. L., & Thede, L. L. (2000). Heritability and the comorbidity of ADHD with behavioral disorders and executive function deficits: A preliminary investigation. Developmental Neuropsychology, 17, 273–287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coolidge, F. L., Thede, L. L., & Jang, K. L. (2001). Heritability of childhood personality disorders: A preliminary study. Journal of Personality Disorders, 15, 33–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coolidge, F. L., Thede, L. L., Stewart, S. E., & Segal, D. L. (2002). The Coolidge Personality and Neuropsychological Inventory for Children (CPNI): Preliminary psychometric characteristics. Behavior Modification, 26, 550–566.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crick, N. R., Murray-Close, D., & Woods, K. (2005). Borderline personality features in childhood: A short-term longitudinal study. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1051–1070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Depue, R. A., & Lenzenweger, M. F. (2001). A neurobehavioral dimensional model. In Livesley, W. J. (Ed.), Handbook of personality disorders: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 136–176). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Donegan, N. H., Sanislow, C. A., Blumberg, H. P., Fulbright, R. K., Lacadie, C., Skudlarski, P., et al. (2003). Amygdala hyperreactivity in borderline personality disorder: Implications for emotional dysregulation. Biological Psychiatry, 54, 1284–1293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dowson, J., Bazanis, E., Rogers, R., Prevost, A., Taylor, P., Meux, C., et al. (2004). Impulsivity in patients with borderline personality disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 45, 29–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duggal, S., Carlson, E. A., Sroufe, L. A., & Egeland, B. (2001). Depressive symptomology in childhood and adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 143–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Guthrie, I. K., Fabes, R. A., Reiser, M., Murphy, B. C., Holgren, R., et al. (1997). The relations of regulation and emotionality to resiliency and competent social functioning in elementary school children. Child Development, 68, 295–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., Fabes, R. A., Smith, C. L., Reiser, M., Shepard, S. A., et al. (2003). The relations of effortful control and ego control to children's resiliency and social functioning. Developmental Psychology, 39, 761–776.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ekstein, R., & Wallerstein, J. (1954). Observations on the psychology of borderline and psychotic children. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 9, 344–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feinberg, M. E., Greenberg, M. T., Osgood, D. W., Sartorius, J., & Bontempo, D. (2007). Effects of the communities that care model in Pennsylvania on youth risk and problem behaviors. Preventative Science, 8, 261–270.Google ScholarPubMed
Flett, G. L., Blankstein, K. R., & Obertynski, M. (1996). Affect intensity, coping styles, mood regulation expectancies and depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 20, 221–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, N. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: Behavioral and biological considerations. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59.Google Scholar
Freud, A. (1969). The assessment of borderline cases. In The writings of Anna Freud (Vol. 5, pp. 301–314). New York: International Universities Press.Google Scholar
Frijling-Schreuder, E. (1969). Borderline states in children. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 24, 307–327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibb, B. E., Wheeler, R., Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Emotional, physical, and sexual maltreatment in childhood versus adolescence and personality dysfunction in young adulthood. Journal of Personality Disorders, 15, 505–511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gjerde, P. F., & Block, J. (1996). A developmental perspective on depressive symptoms in adolescence: Gender differences in autocentric-allocentric modes of impulse regulation. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (Eds.), Adolescence: Opportunities and challenges. Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology (Vol. 7, pp. 167–196). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar
Goldman, S. J., D'Angelo, E. J., DeMaso, D. R., & Mezzacappa, E. (1992). Physical and sexual abuse histories among children with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 1723–1726.Google ScholarPubMed
Goldman, S. J., D'Angelo, E. J., & DeMaso, D. R. (1993). Psychopathology in the families of children and adolescents with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1832–1835.Google ScholarPubMed
Gratz, K. L. (2001). Measurement of deliberate self-harm: Preliminary data on the Deliberate Self-Harm Inventory. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23, 253–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gratz, K. L. (2006). Risk factors for deliberate self-harm among female college students: The role and interaction of childhood maltreatment, emotional inexpressivity, and affect intensity/reactivity. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76, 238–250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gratz, K. L., & Chapman, A. C. (2007). The role of emotional responding and childhood maltreatment in the development and maintenance of deliberate self-harm among male undergraduates. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 8, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gratz, K. L., Conrad, S. D., & Roemer, L. (2002). Risk factors for deliberate self-harm among college students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72, 128–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gratz, K. L., Rosenthal, M. Z., Tull, M. T., Lejuez, C. W., & Gunderson, J. G. (2006). An experimental investigation of emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 850–855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gratz, K. L., Tull, M. T., Baruch, D. E., Bornovalova, M. A., & Lejuez, C. W. (2008). Factors associated with co-occurring borderline personality disorder among inner-city substance users: The roles of childhood maltreatment, negative affect intensity/reactivity, and emotion dysregulation. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49, 603–615.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenman, D. A., Gunderson, J. G., Cane, M., & Saltzman, P. R. (1986). An examination of the borderline diagnosis in children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 998–1003.Google ScholarPubMed
Gualtieri, C. T., Koriath, U., & Van Bourgondien, M. E. (1983). “Borderline” children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 13, 67–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, J. G., & Englund, D. W. (1981). Characterizing the families of borderlines: A review of the literature. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 4, 159–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guzder, J., Paris, J., Zelkowitz, P., & Feldman, R. (1999). Psychological risk factors for borderline pathology in school-age children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 206–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guzder, J., Paris, J., Zelkowitz, P., & Marchessault, K. (1996). Risk factors for borderline psychology in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 26–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hart, D., Keller, M., Edelstein, W., & Hofmann, V. (1998). Childhood personality influences on social–cognitive development: A longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1278–1289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartup, W. W., & van Lieshout, C. F. (1995). Personality development in social context. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, 655–687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, C., Mitropoulou, V., New, A. S., Koenigsberg, H. W., Silverman, J., & Siever, L. J. (2001). Affective instability and impulsivity in borderline personality and bipolar II disorders: Similarities and differences. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 35, 307–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herpertz, S. C., Dietrich, T. M., Wenning, B., Krings, T., Erberich, S. G., Willmes, K., et al. (2001). Evidence of abnormal amygdala functioning in borderline personality disorder: A functional MRI study. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 292–298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hochhausen, N. M., Lorenz, A. R., & Newman, J. P. (2002). Specifying the impulsivity of female inmates with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 495–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoyle, R. H., Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Lorch, E. P., & Donohew, R. L. (2002). Reliability and validity of a brief measure of sensation seeking. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 401–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, D. M., Shea, M. T., Yen, S., Battle, C. L., Zlotnick, C., Sanislow, C. A., et al. (2003). Gender differences in borderline personality disorder: Findings from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 44, 284–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, J. J., Smailes, E. M., Cohen, P., Brown, J., & Bernstein, D. P. (2000). Associations between four types of childhood neglect and personality disorder symptoms during adolescence and early adulthood: Findings of a community-based longitudinal study. Journal of Personality Disorders, 14, 171–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kernberg, P. F. (1983). Borderline conditions: childhood and adolescent aspects. In Robinson, K. S. (Ed.), The borderline child (pp. 101–119). New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Kilpatrick, T., Joyce, E., Milton, J., Duggan, C., Tyrer, P., & Rogers, R. D. (2007). Altered emotional decision-making in prisoners with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 243–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koenigsberg, H. W., Harvey, P. D., Mitropoulou, V., Schmeidler, J., New, A. S., Goodman, M., et al. (2002). Characterizing affective instability in borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 784–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kristensen, H., & Torgersen, S. (2007). The association between avoidant personality traits and motor impairment in a population-based sample of 11-12 year-old children. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 87–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumra, S., Jacobsen, L. K., Lenane, M., Zahn, T. P., Wiggs, E., Alaghband-Rad, J. et al. (1998). “Multidimensionally impaired disorder”: Is it a variant of very early-onset schizophrenia? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 91–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lejuez, C. W., Aklin, W. M., Bornovalova, M. A., & Moolchan, E. T. (2005). Differences in risk-taking propensity across inner-city adolescent ever-and never-smokers. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 7, 71–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lejuez, C. W., Aklin, W., Daughters, S., Zvolensky, M. J., Kahler, C. W., & Gwadz, M. (2007). Reliability and validity of the youth version of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART-Y) in the assessment of risk-taking behavior among inner-city adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 106–111.Google ScholarPubMed
Lejuez, C. W., Aklin, W. M., Zvolensky, M. J., & Pedulla, C. M. (2003). Evaluation of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) as a predictor of adolescent real-world risk-taking behaviors. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 475–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenzenweger, M. F., Lane, M. C., Loranger, A. W., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). DSM-IV personality disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 553–564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levine, D., Marziali, E., & Hood, J. (1997). Emotion processing in borderline personality disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185, 240–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive–behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Livesley, W. J., Jang, K. L., & Vernon, P. A. (1998). Phenotypic and genetic structure of traits delineating personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 941–948.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muehlenkamp, J. J., & Gutierrez, P. M. (2004). An investigation of differences between self-injurious behavior and suicide attempts in a sample of adolescents. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 34, 12–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muller, D., Judd, C. M., & Yzerbyt, V. Y. (2005). When moderation is mediated and mediation is moderated. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 852–863.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigg, J. T., Silk, K. R., Stavro, G., & Miller, T. (2005). Disinhibition and borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1129–1149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palombo, J. (1982). Critical review of the concept of the borderline child. Clinical Social Work Journal, 10, 246–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paris, J. (1997). Childhood trauma as an etiological factor in the personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 11, 34–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paris, J. (2003). Personality disorders over time: Precursors, course and outcome. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google ScholarPubMed
Paris, J. (2005). The development of impulsivity and suicidality in borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1091–1104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paris, J., Zelkowitz, P., Guzder, J., Joseph, S., & Feldman, R. (1999). Neuropsychological factors associated with borderline pathology in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 770–774.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paris, J., Zweig-Frank, H., & Guzder, J. (1994a). Psychological risk factors for borderline personality disorder in female patients. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 35, 301–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paris, J., Zweig-Frank, H., & Guzder, J. (1994b). Risk factors for borderline personality in male outpatients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 375–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petti, T. A., & Vela, R. M. (1990). Borderline disorders of childhood: An overview. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 327–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pine, F. (1983). Borderline syndromes in childhood: A working nosology and its therapeutic implications. In Robson, K. S. (Ed.), The borderline child (pp. 83–100). New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Pukrop, R. (2002). Dimensional personality profiles of borderline personality disorder in comparison with other personality disorders and healthy controls. Journal of Personality Disorders, 16, 135–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnam, K. M., & Silk, K. R. (2005). Emotion dysregulation and the development of borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 899–925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reich, D. B., & Zanarini, M. C. (2001). Developmental aspects of borderline personality disorder. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 9, 294–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reist, C., Haier, R. J., DeMet, E., & Chicz-DeMet, A. (1990). Platelet MAO activity in personality disorders and normal controls. Psychiatry Research, 33, 221–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenbloom, T. (2003). Risk evaluation and risky behavior of high and low sensation seekers. Social Behavior and Personality, 31, 375–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenfeld, S. K., & Sprince, M. P. (1963). An attempt to formulate the meaning of the concept “borderline.” Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 18, 603–635.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (1996). Connections between child and adult psychopathology. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5(Suppl. 1), 4–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryan, R. M. (2005). The developmental line of autonomy in the etiology, dynamics, and treatment of borderline personality disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 987–1006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sack, A., Sperling, M. B., Fagen, G., & Foelsch, P. (1996). Attachment style, history, and behavioral contrasts for a borderline and normal sample. Journal of Personality Disorders, 10, 88–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santucci, A. K., Silk, J. S., Shaw, D. S., Gentzler, A., Fox, N. A., & Kovacs, M. (2008). Vagal tone and temperament as predictors of emotion regulation strategies in young children. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 205–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A. M., & Cicchetti, D. (1997). Emotion regulation in school-age children: The development of a new criterion Q-sort scale. Developmental Psychology, 33, 906–916.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A. M., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 381–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siever, L. J., & Davis, K. L. (1991). A psychobiological perspective on the personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1647–1658.Google ScholarPubMed
Silverman, J. M., Pinkham, L., Horvath, T. B., Coccaro, E. F., Klar, H., Schear, S. et al. (1991). Affective and impulsive personality disorder traits in the relatives of patients with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1378–1385.Google ScholarPubMed
Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., Pfohl, B., Widiger, T. A., Livesley, W. J., & Siever, L. J. (2002). The borderline diagnosis I: Psychopathology, comorbidity, and personality structure. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 936–950.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., Shea, M. T., McGlashan, T. H., Morey, L. C., Sanislow, C. A., et al. (2005). The Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study (CLPS): Overview and implications. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 487–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, S., & Pitts, W. M. (1988). Characterizing anxiety in the DSM-III borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 2, 93–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sperling, M. B., Sharp, J. L., & Fishler, P. H. (1991). On the nature of attachment in a borderline population: A preliminary investigation. Psychological Reports, 68, 543–546.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephenson, M. T., Hoyle, R. H., Palmgreen, P., & Slater, M. D. (2003). Brief measures of sensation seeking for screening and large-scale surveys. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 72, 279–286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1996). Using multivariate statistics. New York: Harper Collins College.Google Scholar
Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torgersen, S., Kringlen, E., & Cramer, V. (2001). The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 590–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torgersen, S., Lygren, S., Oien, P. A., Skre, I., Onstad, S., Edvardsen, J., et al. (2000). A twin study of personality disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41, 416–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Towbin, K. E., Dykens, E. M., Pearson, , & Cohen, D. J. (1993). Conceptualizing “borderline syndrome of childhood” and “childhood schizophrenia” as a developmental disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 775–782.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trull, T. J. (2001). Structural relations between borderline personality disorder features and putative etiological correlates. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 471–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vela, R. M., Gottlieb, E. H., & Gottlieb, H. P. (1983). Borderline syndromes in childhood: A critical review. In Robson, K. S. (Ed.). The borderline child (pp. 32–48). New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Verheul, R. (2006). Impulsivity in the diagnosis of borderline personality disorder. Paper presented at the Phenotype Conference of the Borderline Personality Disorder Research Foundation, New York.Google Scholar
Widiger, T. A., & Weissman, M. M. (1991). Epidemiology of borderline personality disorder. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 42, 1015–1021.Google ScholarPubMed
Work Group on Borderline Personality Disorder. (2001): Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1–52.Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., & Frankenburg, F. R. (1997). Pathways to the development of borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 11, 93–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Dubo, E. D., Sickel, A. E., Trikha, A., Levin, A., et al. (1998a). Axis I comorbidity of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1733–1739.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Dubo, E. D., Sickel, A. E., Trikha, A., Levin, A., et al. (1998b). Axis II comorbidity of borderline personality disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 39, 296–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Khera, G. S., & Bleichmar, J. (2001). Treatment histories of borderline inpatients. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 42, 144–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Ridolfi, M. E., Jager-Hyman, S., Hennen, J., & Gunderson, J. G. (2006). Reported childhood onset of self-multilation among borderline patients. Journal of Personality Disorders, 20, 9–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Williams, A. A., Lewis, R. E., Reich, R. B., Soledad, C., Vera, M. A., et al. (1997). Reported pathological childhood experiences associated with the development of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1101–1106.Google ScholarPubMed
Zelkowitz, P., Paris, J., Guzder, J., & Feldman, R. (2001). Diathesis and stressors in borderline pathology of childhood: The role of neuropsychological risk and trauma. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 100–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zweig-Frank, H. & Paris, J. (1991). Parents’ emotional neglect and overprotection according to the recollections of patients with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 648–651.Google Scholar