Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-sxzjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-18T23:54:57.480Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Early-adult correlates of maltreatment in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Increased risk for internalizing symptoms and suicidality

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 February 2015

Maya D. Guendelman ,
Elizabeth B. Owens ,
Chardee Galán ,
Arianna Gard  and
Stephen P. Hinshaw
Maya D. Guendelman*
Affiliation:
University of California, Berkeley
Elizabeth B. Owens
Affiliation:
University of California, Berkeley
Chardee Galán
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh
Arianna Gard
Affiliation:
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Stephen P. Hinshaw
Affiliation:
University of California, Berkeley
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Maya D. Guendelman, 2205 Tolman Hall, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-1650; E-mail: mguendelman@berkeley.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We examined whether maltreatment experienced in childhood and/or adolescence prospectively predicts young adult functioning in a diverse and well-characterized sample of females with childhood-diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (N = 140). Participants were part of a longitudinal study and carefully evaluated in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood (Mage = 9.6, 14.3, and 19.7 years, respectively), with high retention rates across time. A thorough review of multisource data reliably established maltreatment status for each participant (Mκ = 0.78). Thirty-two (22.9%) participants experienced at least one maltreatment type (physical abuse, sexual abuse, or neglect). Criterion variables included a broad array of young adult measures of functioning gleaned from multiple-source, multiple-informant instruments. With stringent statistical control of demographic, prenatal, and family status characteristics as well as baseline levels of the criterion variable in question, maltreated participants were significantly more impaired than nonmaltreated participants with respect to self-harm (suicide attempts), internalizing symptomatology (anxiety and depression), eating disorder symptomatology, and well-being (lower overall self-worth). Effect sizes were medium. Comprising the first longitudinal evidence linking maltreatment with key young adult life impairments among a carefully diagnosed and followed sample of females with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, these findings underscore the clinical importance of trauma experiences within this population.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 28 , Issue 1 , February 2016 , pp. 1 - 14
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2003). Manual for the ASEBA adult forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.Google Scholar
American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry & Cohen, J. (1998). Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 4S–26S. doi:10.1097/00004583-199810001-00002 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2011). ADHD: Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pedatrics, 128, 1–16. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2654 Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., et al. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 174–186. doi:10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8, 291–322. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Babinski, D. E., Pelham, W. E. J., Molina, B. S. G., Gnagy, E. M., Waschbusch, D. A., Yu, J., et al. (2011). Late adolescent and young adult outcomes of girls diagnosed with ADHD in childhood: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Attention Disorders, 15, 204–214. doi:10.1177/1087054710361586 Google Scholar
Bakeman, R., & Gottman, J. M. (1997). Assessing observer agreement. In Observing interaction: An introduction to sequential analysis (2nd ed., pp. 56–80). New York: Cambridge Univeristy Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bardone-Cone, A. M., Maldonado, C. R., Crosby, R. D., Mitchell, J. E., Wonderlich, S. A., Joiner, T. E. J., et al. (2008). Revisiting differences in individuals with bulimia nervosa with and without a history of anorexia nervosa: Eating pathology, personality, and maltreatment. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 41, 697–704. doi:10.1002/eat.20567 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barkley, R. A. (2006). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. New York: Guilford Press.Google ScholarPubMed
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Ball, R., & Ranieri, W. F. (1996). Comparison of Beck Depression Inventories—IA and —II in psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67, 588–597. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6703_13 Google Scholar
Beers, S. R., & De Bellis, M. D. (2002). Neuropsychological function in children with maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 483–486. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.3.483 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B, 57, 289–300.Google Scholar
Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., & Monuteaux, M. C. (2002). Differential effect of environmental adversity by gender: Rutter's index of adversity in a group of boys and girls with and without ADHD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1556–1562. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.9.1556 Google Scholar
Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., Monuteaux, M. C., Fried, R., Byrne, D., Mirto, T., et al. (2010). Adult psychiatric outcomes of girls with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: 11-year follow-up in a longitudinal case-control study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 409–417. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09050736 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., O'Connor, K. B., Hyder, L. L., & Faraone, S. V. (2012). Predictors of persistence in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Results from an 11-year controlled follow-up study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 125, 147–156. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01797.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., Spencer, T. J., Woodworth, K. Y., Bhide, P., Zhu, J., et al. (2012). Examining the nature of the comorbidity between pediatric attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 128, 78–87. doi:10.1111/acps.12011 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bird, H. R. (1999). The assessment of functional impairment. In Shaffer, D., Lucas, C. P., & Richters, J. E. (Eds.), Diagnostic assessment in child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 209–229). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Briere, J., & Jordan, C. E. (2009). Childhood maltreatment, intervening variables, and adult psychological difficulties in women: An overview. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 10, 375–388. doi:10.1177/1524838009339757 Google Scholar
Briscoe-Smith, A. M., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2006). Linkages between child abuse and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in girls: Behavioral and social correlates. Child Abuse and Neglect, 30, 1239–1255. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.04.008 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carroll, X. D. P., Yi, H., Liang, Y., Pang, K., Leeper-Woodford, S., Riccardi, P., et al. (2012). Family environmental factors associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Chinese children: A case-control study. PLOS ONE, 7, e50543.Google Scholar
Carter, Y. H., Bannon, M. J., Limbert, C., Docherty, A., & Barlow, J. (2006). Improving child protection: A systematic review of training and procedural interventions. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 91, 740–743. doi:10.1136/adc.2005.092007 Google Scholar
Casper, R. C. (1998). Depression and eating disorders. Depression and Anxiety, 8, 96–104. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6394(1998)8:1 + < 96::AID-DA15 > 3.0.CO;2-43.0.CO;2-4>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CDC. (2012a). Child maltreatment: Facts at a glance. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cm_datasheet2012-a.pdf Google Scholar
CDC. (2012b). Child maltreatment: Risk and protective factors. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childmaltreatment/riskprotectivefactors.html Google Scholar
Chan, K. L. (2012). Comparison of parent and child reports on child maltreatment in a representative household sample in Hong Kong. Journal of Family Violence, 27, 11–21. doi:10.1007/s10896-011-9405-1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chronis-Tuscano, A., Molina, S. G., Pelham, W. E., Applegate, B., Dahlke, A., Overmeyer, M., et al. (2010). Very early predictors of adolescent depression and suicide attempts in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 1044–1051. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.127 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Olsen, K. (1990). The developmental psychopathology of child maltreatment. In Lewis, M. & Miller, S. M. (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp. 261–279). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600. doi:10.1017/S0954579400007318 Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2005). Child maltreatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 409–438. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144029 Google Scholar
Claes, L., Vandereycken, W., & Vertommen, H. (2001). Self-injurious behavior in eating-disordered patients. Eating Behaviors, 2, 263–272. doi:10.1016/S1471-0153(01)00033-2 Google Scholar
Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710–722. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00900.x Google Scholar
Cullerton-Sen, C., Cassidy, A. R., Murray-Close, D., Cicchetti, D., Crick, N. R., & Rogosch, F. A. (2008). Childhood maltreatment and the development of relational and physical aggression: The importance of a gender-informed approach. Child Development, 79, 1236–1751. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01222.x Google Scholar
Dahmen, B., Putz, V., Herpertz-Dahlmann, B., & Konrad, K. (2012). Early pathogenic care and the development of ADHD-like symptoms. Journal of Neural Transmission, 119, 1023–1036. doi:10.1007/s00702-012-0809-8 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deault, L. C. (2010). A systematic review of parenting in relation to the development of comorbidities and functional impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 41, 168–192. doi:10.1007/s10578-009-0159-4 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Sanctis, V. A., Nomura, Y., Newcorn, J. H., & Halperin, J. M. (2012). Childhood maltreatment and conduct disorder: Independent predictors of criminal outcomes in ADHD youth. Child Abuse and Neglect, 36, 782–789. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.08.003 Google Scholar
De Sanctis, V. A., Trampush, J. W., Harty, S. C., Marks, D. J., Newcorn, J. H., Miller, C. J., et al. (2008). Childhood maltreatment and conduct disorder: Independent predictors of adolescent substance use disorders in youth with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 785–793. doi:10.1080/15374410802359650 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dong, M., Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Dube, S. R., Williamson, D. F., Thompson, T. J., et al. (2004). The interrelatedness of multiple forms of childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. Child Abuse and Neglect, 28, 771–784. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.01.008 Google Scholar
Dube, S. R., Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Chapman, D. P., Williamson, D. F., & Giles, W. H. (2001). Childhood abuse, household dysfunction, and the risk of attempted suicide throughout the life span: Findings from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286, 3089–3096. doi:10.1001/jama.286.24.3089 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dube, S. R., Felitti, V. J., Dong, M., Chapman, D. P., Giles, W. H., & Anda, R. F. (2003). Childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction and the risk of illicit drug use: The Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Pediatrics, 111, 564–572. doi:10.1542/peds.111.3.564 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edwards, V. J., Holden, G. W., Felitti, V. J., & Anda, R. F. (2003). Relationship between multiple forms of childhood maltreatment and adult mental health in community respondents: Results from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1453–1460. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.8.1453 Google Scholar
Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Ageton, S. (1985). Explaining delinquency and drug use. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Fleiss, J. L. (1981). Statistical methods for rates and proportions. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ford, J. D., Racusin, R., Ellis, C. G., Daviss, W. B., Reiser, J., Fleischer, A., et al. (2000). Child maltreatment, other trauma exposure, and posttraumatic symptomatology among children with oppositional defiant and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders. Child Maltreatment, 5, 205–217. doi:10.1177/1077559500005003001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franke, B., Faraone, S. V., Asherson, P., Buitelaar, J., Bau, C. H. D., Ramos-Quiroga, J. A., et al. (2012). The genetics of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults, a review. Molecular Psychiatry, 17, 960–987. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.138 Google Scholar
Galera, C., Cote, S. M., Bouvard, M. P., Pingault, J. B., Melchior, M., Michel, G., et al. (2011). Early risk factors for hyperactivity–impulsivity and inattention trajectories from age 17 months to 8 years. JAMA Psychiatry, 68, 1267–1275. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.138 Google Scholar
Garner, D. M. (1991). Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-2) (2nd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Garner, D. M., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1979). The Eating Attitudes Test: An index of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa. Psychological Medicine, 9, 273–279. doi:10.1017/S0033291700030762 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M. P., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1982). The Eating Attitudes Test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine, 12, 871–878. doi:10.1017/S0033291700049163 Google Scholar
Gilbert, R., Kemp, A., Thoburn, J., Sidebotham, P., Radford, L., Glaser, D., et al. (2009). Recognising and responding to child maltreatment. Lancet, 373, 167–180. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61707-9 Google Scholar
Glatz, T., Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2011). Parents' reactions to youths' hyperactivity, impulsivity, and attention problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 1125–1135. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9541-3 Google Scholar
Green, J. G., McLaughlin, K. A., Berglund, P. A., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., et al. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication I: Associations with first onset of DSM-IV disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 113–123. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.186 Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Wenner, J. A., Thomas, K. M., Glatt, C. E., McKenna, M. C., & Clark, A. G. (2012). The brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met polymorphism moderates early deprivation effects on attention problems. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1215–1223. doi:10.1017/S095457941200065X CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, J. L., Shapero, B. G., Stange, J. P., Hamlat, E. J., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2013). Emotional maltreatment, peer victimization, and depressive versus anxiety symptoms during adolescence: Hopelessness as a mediator. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 42, 332–347. doi:10.1080/15374416.2013.777916 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harter, S. (1982). The Perceived Competence Scale for Children. Child Development, 53, 87–97. doi:10.2307/1129640 Google Scholar
Harter, S. (1988). Manual for the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents. Unpublished manuscript, University of Denver.Google Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P. (2002). Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: I. Background characteristics, comorbidity, cognitive and social functioning, and parenting practices. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 1086–1098. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.70.5.1086 Google Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P., Owens, E. B., Sami, N., & Fargeon, S. (2006). Prospective follow-up of girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into adolescence: Evidence for continuing cross-domain impairment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 489–499. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.3.489 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinshaw, S. P., Owens, E. B., Zalecki, C., Huggins, S. P., Montenegro-Nevado, A. J., Schrodek, E., et al. (2012). Prospective follow-up of girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into early adulthood: Continuing impairment includes elevated risk for suicide attempts and self-injury. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80, 1041–1051. doi:10.1037/a0029451 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hurley, J. B., Palmer, R. L., & Stretch, D. (1990). The specificity of the Eating Disorders Inventory: A reappraisal. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 9, 419–424. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(199007)9:4 < 419::AID-EAT2260090408 > 3.0.CO;2-O3.0.CO;2-O>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
IBM Corp. (2011). IBM SPSS Statistics for Mac OS, Microsoft Windows. Version 20.0 [Computer software]. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.Google Scholar
Jessor, R., Donovan, J. E., & Costa, F. M. (1989). Health Behavior Questionnaire. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Science.Google Scholar
Johnston, C., Mash, E. J., Miller, N., & Ninowski, J. E. (2012). Parenting in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 215–228. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.01.007 Google Scholar
Keyes, K. M., Eaton, N. R., Krueger, R. F., McLaughlin, K. A., Wall, M. M., Grant, B. F., et al. (2012). Childhood maltreatment and the structure of common psychiatric disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 200, 107–115. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.093062 Google Scholar
Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., Crozier, J., & Kaplow, J. (2002). A 12-year prospective study of the long-term effects of early child physical maltreatment on psychological, behavioral, and academic problems in adolescence. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 156, 824–830. doi:10.1001/archpedi.156.8.824 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lau, A. S., & Weisz, J. R. (2003). Reported maltreatment among clinic-referred children: Implications for presenting problems, treatment attrition, and long-term outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1327–1334. doi:10.1097/01.CHI.0000085754.71002.14 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leeb, R. T., Paulozzi, L., Melanson, C., Simon, T., & Arias, I. (2008). Child maltreatment surveillance: Uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements, Version 1.0. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/pdf/CM_Surveillance-a.pdf Google Scholar
Louwers, E. C., Korfage, I. J., Affourtit, M. J., Scheewe, D. J., van de Merwe, M. H., Vooijs-Moulaert, A. F., et al. (2012). Effects of systematic screening and detection of child abuse in emergency departments. Pediatrics, 130, 457–464. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-3527 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrory, E., De Brito, S. A., & Viding, E. (2010). Research review: The neurobiology and genetics of maltreatment and adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 1079–1095. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02271.x Google Scholar
Molina, B. S. G., & Pelham, W. E. (2003). Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 497–507. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.112.3.497 Google Scholar
National Household Survey on Drug Abuse. (1992). OMB No. 0930-0110. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, and Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, National Institute on Drug Abuse.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (2013). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and adverse health outcomes. Clinical Psychology Revue, 33, 215–228. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.11.005 Google Scholar
Nikolas, M. A., & Burt, S. A. (2010). Genetic and environmental influences on ADHD symptom dimensions of inattention and hyperactivity: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 1–17. doi:10.1037/a0018010 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nock, M. K. (2009). Why do people hurt themselves? New insights into the nature and functions of self-injury. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 78–83. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01613.x Google Scholar
Ouyang, L., Fang, X., Mercy, J., Perou, R., & Grosse, S. D. (2008). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and child maltreatment: A population-based study. Journal of Pediatrics, 153, 851–856. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.06.002 Google Scholar
Overmeyer, S., Taylor, E., Blanz, B., & Schmidt, M. H. (1999). Psychosocial adversities underestimated in hyperkinetic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 259–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prinz, R. J., Sanders, M. R., Shapiro, C. J., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: The U.S. Triple P System population trial. Prevention Science, 10, 1–12. doi:10.1007/s11121-009-0123-3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richards, L. M. (2012). It is time for a more integrated bio-psycho-social approach to ADHD. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/1359104512458228 Google ScholarPubMed
Santosh, P. J., Taylor, E., Swanson, J., Wigal, T., Chuang, S., Davies, M., et al. (2005). Refining the diagnoses of inattention and overactivity syndromes: A reanalysis of the Multimodal Treatment study of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) based on ICD-10 criteria for hyperkinetic disorder. Clinical Neuroscience Research, 5, 307–314. doi:10.1016/j.cnr.2005.09.010 Google Scholar
Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): Description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38. doi:10.1097/00004583-200001000-00014 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverman, A. B., Reinherz, H. Z., & Giaconia, R. M. (1996). The long-term sequelae of child and adolescent abuse: A longitudinal community study. Child Abuse and Neglect, 20, 709–723. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(96)00059-2 Google Scholar
Slade, E. P., & Wissow, L. S. (2007). The influence of childhood maltreatment on adolescents' academic performance. Economics of Education Review, 26, 604–614. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2006.10.003 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stirling, J. J., & Amaya-Jackson, L. (2008). Understanding the behavioral and emotional consequences of child abuse. Pediatrics, 122, 667–673. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1885 Google Scholar
Sugaya, L., Hasin, D. S., Olfson, M., Lin, K. H., Grant, B. F., & Blanco, C. (2012). Child physical abuse and adult mental health: A national study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25, 384–392. doi:10.1002/jts.21719 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swanson, J. M. (1992). School-based assessments and interventions for ADD students. Irvine, CA: K. C. Publishing.Google Scholar
Tomoda, A., Suzuki, H., Rabi, K., Sheu, Y. S., Polcari, A., & Teicher, M. H. (2009). Reduced prefrontal cortical gray matter volume in young adults exposed to harsh corporal punishment. NeuroImage, 47, T66–T71. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.005 Google Scholar
Tyler, K. M., Smith, D. R., & Ellis, P. M. (2006). Child neglect: Developmental consequences, intervention, and policy implications. Child and Youth Care Forum, 35, 1–20. doi:10.1007/s10566-005-9000-9 Google Scholar
Waxman, S. E. (2009). A systematic review of impulsivity in eating disorders. European Eating Disorders Review, 17, 408–425. doi:10.1002/erv.952 Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1991). Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (2nd ed.). New York: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (2001). Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Second Version. New York: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
What Works Clearinghouse. (2008). What Works Clearinghouse: Procedures and standards handbook (version 2.1). Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/reference_resources/wwc_procedures_v2_1_standards_handbook.pdf Google Scholar
Williams, V. S. L., Jones, L. V., & Tukey, J. W. (1999). Controlling error in multiple comparisons with examples from state-to-state differences in educational achievement. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 24, 42–69. doi:10.3102/10769986024001042 Google Scholar
Zwi, M., Jones, H., Thorgaard, C., York, A., & Dennis, J. A. (2011). Parent training interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children aged 5 to 18 years. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2011. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003018.pub3 Google Scholar