Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-zzh7m Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T15:28:14.292Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Central Nervous System Opportunistic Infections in HIV-1 Infection

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Mauricio Concha  and
Alejandro Rabinstein
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Neurologic disease is commonly encountered in the population infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Although HIV-1 is responsible for many of these neurologic complications, other organisms will affect the nervous system as the immune deficiency state progresses. With the wide use of potent antiretroviral therapy, the mortality from and incidence of opportunistic infections (OIs) among persons with advanced HIV-1 infection has decreased. Nevertheless, these diseases are still seen frequently, especially among those with limited access to new antiretroviral therapies. Therefore, it remains important to recognize the most common OIs of the central nervous system (CNS) as well as primary CNS lymphoma, which will be the focus of this review.

Type
Feature Articles
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 5 , Issue 4: HIV and the Central Nervous System: Part One , April 2000 , pp. 43 - 60
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.Brodt, HR, Kamps, BS, Gute, P, Knupp, B, Staszewski, S, Helm, EB. Changing incidence of AIDS-defining illnesses in the era of antiretroviral combination therapy. AIDS. 1997;11:1731–1738.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
2.Carpenter, CC, Fischl, MA, Hammer, SM, et al.Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in 1998: updated recommendations of the International AIDS Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 1998;280:78–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3.Palella, FJJ, Delaney, KM, Moorman, AC, et al.Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection: HIV-1 Outpatient Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:853–860.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4.Moore, RD, Keruly, JC, Chaisson, RE. Effectiveness of combination antiretroviral therapy in clinical practice (abstract). Presented at: The Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 28–October 1, 1997; Toronto, Canada.Google Scholar
5.Price, R, Brew, B. Central and peripheral nervous system complications. In: De Vita, V, Hellman, S, Rosemberg, S, eds. AIDS: Biology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven; 1997:331.Google Scholar
6.Bancellar, H, Munoz, A, Miller, EN, et al.Temporal trends in the incidence of HIV related neurologic diseases: multicenter AIDS Cohort Study, 1985-1992. Neurology. 1994;44:1892.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7.Luft, BJ, Hafner, R, Korzun, AH, et al, for the ACTG 077p/ANRS 009 Study Team. Toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:995–1000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
8.Porter, SB, Sande, MA. Toxoplasmosis of the central nervous system in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1643–1648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9.Renold, C, Sugar, A, Chave, J-P, et al.Toxoplasma encephalitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Medicine. 1992;71:224–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10.DeBiasi, R, Tyler, K. Polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis and management of central nervous system infections. Arch Neurol. 1999;56:1215–1219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11.Quality Standards Subcommitee of the American Academy of Neurology. Evaluation and management of intracranial mass lesions in AIDS. Neurology. 1998;50:21–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12.Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Evaluation and management of intracranial mass lesions in AIDS. Neurology. 1998;50:21–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13.Holloway, RG, Mushlin, AI. Intracranial mass lesions in AIDS using decision analysis to determine the effectiveness of stereotactic brain biopsy. Neurology. 1996;46:1010–1015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Wright, D, Chneider, A, Berger, J. Central nervous system opportunistic infections. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 1997;7:513–525.Google ScholarPubMed
15.Garder, HA, Martinez, AJ, Visvesvara, GS, Sotrel, A. Granulomatous amebic encephalitis in an AIDS patient. Neurology. 1991;41:1993–1995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
16.Del Castillo, M, Mendoza, G, Oviedo, J, et al.AIDS and Chagas' disease with a central nervous system tumor-like lession. Am J Med. 1990;88:693–694.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17.Powderly, WG. Cryptoccocal meningitis and AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17:837–842.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18.Chuck, SL, Sanda, MA. Infections with Cryptoccocus neoformans in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:794–799.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19.Pons, VG, Jacobs, RA, Hollander, H. Nonviral infections of the central nervous system in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. In: Rosenblum, ML, Levy, RM, Bredsen, DE, eds. AIDS and the Central Nervous System. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1998:263–283.Google Scholar
20.Polis, MA, Kovocs, JA. Fungal infections in patients with the acquired immunodeficienncy syndrome. In: De Vita, V, Hellmon, S, Rosenberg, S, eds. AIDS: Biology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippncott-Raven; 1997:231.Google Scholar
21.Andreula, CF, Burdi, N, Carella, A. CNS cryptoccocosis in AIDS: spectrum of MR findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1993;17:438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22.Van der Horst, C, Saag, M, Cloud, G, et al.Treatment of cryptoccocal meningitis associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:15–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23.Powderly, WG, Cloud, GA, Dismukes, WE, et al.Measurement of cryptococcal antigen in serum and cerebrospinal fluid: value in the management of AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18:789–792.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24.Darras-Joly, C, Chevret, S, Wolff, M, et al.Cryptoccocus neoformans infection in France: epidemiologic features of and early prognostic parameters for 76 patients who were infected with HIV-1. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;23:369–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25.Carraza, RJ, Rossitch, E Jr, Morris, J. Isolated central nervous system aspergillosis in AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1991;93:227–230.Google Scholar
26.Cuadrado, LM, Guerrero, A, Lopez Garcia Asenjo, JA, et al.Cerebral mucormycosis in two cases of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Neurol. 1988;45:109–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27.Wheat, LJ, Connolly-Stringfield, PA, Baker, RL, et al.Disseminated histoplasmosis in AIDS: clinical findings, diagnosis and treatment and review of the literature. Medicine. 1990;69:361–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28.Fish, DG, Ampel, NM, Galgiani, JN, et al.Coccidioidomycosis during human immunodeficiency virus infection: a review of 77 patients. Medicine. 1990;69:384–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29.Gade, W, Ledman, DW, Wethington, R, Yi, A. Serological responses to various coccidiodes antigen preparations in a new enzyme immunoassay. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;39:1907–1912.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30.Berger, JR. Neurosyphilis in human immunodeficiency virus type-1–seropositive individuals: a prospective study. Arch Neurol. 1991;48:700–702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31.Scheck, DN, Hook, EW. Neurosyphilis. Infect dis clin North Am. 1994;8:764–795.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32.Musher, DM, Hamill, RJ, Baughn, RD. Effect of HIV-1 infection on the course of syphilis and on the response to treatment. Ann Intern Med. 1990;113:872–881.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33.Marra, CM. Neurosyphilis. In: Johnson, RT, Griffin, JW, eds. Current Therapy in Neurologic Disease. 5th ed. St Louis, Mo: Mosby-Year Book. 1997.Google Scholar
34.Feraru, ER, Aronow, HA, Lipton, RB. Neurosyphilis in AIDS patients: initial CSF VDRL may be negative. Neurology. 1990;40:541–543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35.Haas, JS, Bolan, G, Larsen, SA, et al.Sensitivity of treponemal tests for detecting prior treated syphilis during HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis. 1990;162:862–866.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36.Harrison, M, McArthur, J. Opportunistic infections-bacteria. In: AIDS and Neurology. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 1995:151–170.Google Scholar
37.Havlir, D, Barnes, P. Tuberculosis in patients with HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med 1999;340:367–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
38.Whalen, C, Horsburgh, CR, Hom, D, et al.Accelerated course of human immunodeficiency virus infection after tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151:129–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39.Villoria, MF, de la Torre, J, Munoz, , et al.Intracranial tuberculosis in AIDS: CT and MRI findings. Neuroradiology. 1992;34:11–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.Zuger, A, Lowdy, FD. Tuberculosis. In: Scheld, WM, Whitley, RJ, Durack, DT, eds. Infections of the Central Nervous System. 2nded. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven; 1997:417.Google Scholar
41.Dube, MP, Holon, PD, Larsen, RA. Tuberculosis meningitis in patients with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Med. 1992;93:520–524.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42.Kent, SJ, Crowe, SM, Yung, A, Lucas, R, Mijch, AN. Tuberculosis meningitis: a 30-year review. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17:987–994.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43.Kennedy, DH, Fallon, RJ. Tuberculous meningitis. JAMA. 1979;241:264–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44.Whiteman, ML. Neuroimaging of central nervous system tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients. In: Neuroimaging clin North Am. Post, M. Judith (ed.). 1997;7:199–214.Google Scholar
45.Pulido, F, Pena, J-M, Rubio, R, et al.Relapse of tuberculosis after treatment in HIV-1–infected patients. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:227–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
46.Shafer, RWChirgwin, KD, Glatt, AE, et al.HIV prevalence, immunosuppression and drug resistance in patients with tuberculosis in an area endemic for AIDS. AIDS. 1991;5:399–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
47.Bartlett, JG. Medical Management of HIV Infection. Physicians & Scientists Publishing Co. GlenviewF; 1996.Google Scholar
48.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention and treatment of tuberculosis among patients infected with HIV-1: principles of therapy and revised recommendations. MMWR. 1998;47(RR-20):1–58.Google Scholar
49.Jacob, CN, Henein, SS, Heurich, AE, Kamholtz, S. Nontuberculous mycobacterial infection of the central nervous system in patients with AIDS. South Med J. 1993;106:333–304.Google Scholar
50.Hadley, MN, Spetzler, RF, Martin, NA, Johnson, PC. Middle cerebral artery aneurysm due to nocardia asteroides: case report of aneurysm excision and extracranial-intracranial bypass. Neurosurgery. 1988;22:923–928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51.Whiteman, ML, Post, MJ, Sklar, EML. Neuroimaging of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. In: Berger, JR, Levy, RM, eds. AIDS and the nervous system. 2nd edition. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven Publishers; 1997Google Scholar
52.Decker, CF, Simon, GL, DiGiola, RA, et al.Listeria monocytogenes infections in patients with AIDS: report of five cases and review. Rev Infect Dis. 1991;13:A13–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53.Berenguer, J, Solera, J, Diaz, et al.Listeriosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Rev Infect Dis. 1991;13:115–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
54.Kales, CP, Holzman, RS. Listeriosis in patients with HIV infection: clinical manifestations and responses to therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1992;3:139–143.Google Scholar
55.Richardson, EP Jr. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy 30 years later. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:315–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56.Major, EO, Amemiya, K, Tornatore, C, Houff, S, Berger, JR. Pathogenesis and molecular biology of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, the JC virus-induced demyelinating disease of the human brain. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1992;5:49–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57.Gibson, PE, Field, AM, Gardner, SD, et al.Occurrence of IgM antibodies against BK and JC polyomaviruses during pregnancy. J Clin Pathol. 1981;34:674–679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58.Shah, KV. Polyomaviruses. In: Fields, BN, Knipe, DM, et al, eds. Virology. Vol 2. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1990:1609–1623.Google Scholar
59.Taguchi, F, Kajioka, J, Miyamura, T. Prevalence rate and age of acquisition of antibodies against JC virus and BK virus in human sera. Microbiol Immunol. 1982;26:1057–1064.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60.Padgett, BL, Walker, DL. Virologic and serologic studies of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. In: Sever, J, Madden, DL, eds. Polyomaviruses and Human Neurological Disease. New York, NY: Alan R. Liss; 1983.Google Scholar
61.Brooks, BR, Walker, DL. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurol Clin. 1984;2:299–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62.Berger, JR, Concha, M. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: the evolution of a disease once considered rare. J Neurovirol. 1995;1:5–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
63.Kuchelmeister, K, Gullotta, F, Bergmann, M. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): a neuropathological autopsy study of 21 cases. Pathol Res Pract. 1993;189:163–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64.ZuRhein, GM. Polyoma-like virions in a human demyelinating disease. Acta Neurol Pathol. 1967;8:57–68.Google Scholar
65.Whiteman, M, Post, MJD, Berger, JR, Limonte, L, Tate, LG, Bell, M. PML in 47 HIV-1+ patients. Radiology. 1993;187:233–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
66.Chang, L, Ernst, T, Tornatore, C, et al.Metabolite abnormalities in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Neurology. 1997;48:836–845.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
67.McGuire, D, Barhite, S, Hollander, H, Miles, M. JC virus DNA in cerebrospinal fluid of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: predictive value for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Ann Neurol. 1995;37:395–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68.Berger, JR, Mucke, L. Prolonged survival and partial recovery in AIDS-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurology. 1988;38:1060–1065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69.Berger, JR, Levy, RM, Flomenhoft, D, Dobbs, M. Predictive factors for prolonged survival in AIDS-associated PML [abstract]. J neurovirol 1998;4:342.Google Scholar
70.Hall, CD, Daml, U, Simpson, D, et al.Failure of cytarabine in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection: AIDS Clinical Trial Group 243 Team. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:1345–1351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71.Costagiola, D. Clinical manifestations of HIV-1 infections in the era of highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) in France (abstract). Presented at: 12th World AIDS Conference; June 28–July 3, 1998; Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar
72.Clifford, DB, Yiannoutsos, C, Glicksman, M, et al.HAART improves prognosis in HIV-1–associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurology. 1999;52:623–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
73.Dubois, V, Barbeau, P, Lafon, ME, Pellegrin, JL, Fleury, H. JCV, DNA, and mRNA sequential detection in a patient presenting long term remission of PML [abstract]. J Neurovirol. 1998;4:347.Google Scholar
74.Giudici, B, Vaz, B, Bossolasco, S, et al.Clearance of JC virus (JCV)-DNA from the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) after triple antiretroviral therapy [abstract]. J Neurovirol. 1998;4:352.Google Scholar
75.De Luca, A, Ammassari, A, Cingolani, A, et al.Disease progression and poor survival of AIDS-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy despite highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 1998;12:1937–1938.Google ScholarPubMed
76.Meylan, PR, Vuadens, P, Maeder, P, Sahli, R, Tagan, MC. Monitoring the response of AIDS-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy to HAART and cidofovir by PCR for JC virus DNA in CSF. Eur Neurol. 1999;41:172–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
77.Oliveira, ACP, Pereira, LC Jr, Bonasser, F. Treatment for progressive multifocal leukencephalopathy with cidofovir: a case report [abstract]. J Neurovirol. 1998;4:361.Google Scholar
78.Huang, SS, Skolasky, RL, Dal Pan, GJ, Royal, W, McArthur, J. Survival prolongation in HIV-1–associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy treated with alpha-interferon: an observational study. J Neurovirol. 1998;4:324–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
79.Snapka, R. Topoisomerase inhibitors can selectively interfere with different stages of simian virus 40 DNA replication. Mol Cell Biol. 1986;6:4221–4227.Google ScholarPubMed
80.Rubenstein, L, Rein, A. Effect of campothecin on simian virus 40 DNA. Nature. 1973;248:226–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
81.Kerr, DA, Chang, CF, Gordon, J, et al.Inhibition of human neurotropic virus (JCV) DNA replication in glial cells by campothecin. Virology. 1993;196:612–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
82.Blaney, S, Cole, D, Balis, F, Goodwin, K, Poplack, D. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid pharmadinetic study of topotecan in nonhuman primates. Cancer Res. 1993;53:725–727.Google ScholarPubMed
83.Drew, WL. Cytomegalovirus infection in patients with AIDS. J Infect Dis. 1998;158:449–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
84.Leach, CT, Cherry, JD, English, PA, et al.The relationship between T-cell levels and CMV infection in asymptomatic HIV-1-1 antibody-positive homosexual men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1993;6:407–413.Google Scholar
85.Cohen, B, Dix, RD. Cytomegalovirus and other herpesvirus. In: Berger, JR, Levy, RM, eds. AIDS and the Nervous System. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven Publishers; 1997.Google Scholar
86.Cheong, I, Flegg, PJ, Brettle, RP, et al.Cytomegalovirus disease in AIDS: the Edinburgh experience. Int J STD AIDS. 1992;3:324–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
87.Degans, J, Portegies, P. Neurological complications of infections with human immunodeficiency virus type 1: a review of literature and 241 cases. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 1989;91:199–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
88.Holland, NR, Power, C, Mathews, VP, Glass, JD, Forman, M, McArthur, JC. CMV encephalitis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Neurology. 1994;44:507–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
89.Arribas, JR, Storch, GA, Clifford, D, Tselis, A. Cytomegalovirus encephalitis. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:577–587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90.Cinque, P, Vago, L, Dahl, H, et al.Polymerase chain reaction on cerebrospinal fluid for diagnosis of virus-associated opportunistic diseases of the central nervous system in HIV-1–infected patients. AIDS. 1996;10:951–958.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91.Bazan, C, Jackson, C, Jinkins, JR, Barohn, RJ. Gadolinium-enhanced MRI in a case of cytomegalovirus polyradiculopathy. Neurology. 1991;41:1522–1523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
92.So, Y, Olney, R. Acute Lumbrosacral polyradiculopathy in AIDS: experience in 23 patients. Ann Neurol. 1994;35:53–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
93.Peters, M, Timm, U, Schurmann, D. Combined and alternating ganciclovir and foscarnet in acute and maintenance therapy of human immunodeficiency virus-related cytomegalovirus encephalitis refractory to ganciclovir alone. Clinical Investigator. 1992;70:456–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
94.Tucker, T, Dix, RD, Katzen, C, Davis, RL, Schmidley, JW. Cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus ascending myelitis in a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1985;18:74–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
95.Lipton, SA, Schaefer, PW, Adams, RD, Ma, MJ. A 37 year old man with AIDS, neurologic deterioration, and multiple hemorrhagic cerebral lesions: varicella-zoster leukoencephalitis with hemorrhage and large-vessel vasculopathy—acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1587–1595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
96.Petito, CK, Cho, E-S, Lemann, W, Navia, BA, Price, RW. Neuropathology of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): an autopsy review. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1986;45:635–646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97.Gray, F, Mohr, M, Rozenberg, F, et al.Varicellazoster virus encephalitis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: report of four cases. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 1992;18:502–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98.Schmidbauer, M, Budka, H, Ambros, P. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) DNA in microglial nodular Varicella zoster virus infection in nervous tissues. Brain. 1992;115:383–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
99.Chetien, F, Gray, F, Lescs, MC, et al.Acute varicella-zoster virus ventriculitis and meningo-myelo-radiculitis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Acta Neuropathol. 1993;86:659–665.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
100.McCullers, JA, Lakeman, FD, Whitley, RJ. Human herpesvirus 6 is associated with focal encephalitis. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21:571–576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
101.Lakeman, FD, Whitley, RJ. Diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis: application of polymerase chain reaction to cerebrospinal fluid from brain-biopsied patients and correlation with disease. J Infect Dis. 1995;171:857–863.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
102.Balfour, HH Jr, Bean, B, Laskin, OL. Acyclovir halts progression of herpes zoster in immunocompromised patients. N Engl J Med. 1983;308:1448–1453.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
103.Levine, AM, Sullivan-Halley, J, Pike, MC, et al.Human immunodeficiency virus-related lymphoma—prognostic factors predictive of survival. Cancer. 1991;68:2466–2472.3.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
104.Ruiz, A, Post, MJD, Bundschu, C, Ganz, WI, Georgiou, M. Primary central nervous system lymphoma in patients with AIDS. In: Post, MJ, ed. Neuroimaging Clinics of North America. 1997;7:281–296.Google ScholarPubMed
105.Straus, DI. HIV associated lymphomas. Curr Opin Oncol. 1997;9:450–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
106.MacMahon, E, Glass, JD, Hayward, SD, et al.Epstein-Barr virus in AIDS-related primary central nervous system lymphoma. Lancet. 1991;338:969–973.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
107.Liebowitz, D. Epstein-Barr virus and a cellular signaling pathway in lymphomas from immuno-suppressed patients. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:1413–1421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
108.Remick, SC, Diamond, C, Migiozz, J, et al.Primary central nervous system lymphoma in patients with and without the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Medicine. 1990;69:345–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
109.Levy, RM, Russell, E, Yungbluth, M, Hidvegi, DF, Brody, BA, DalCanto, MC. Efficacy of image guided stereotactic biopsy in neurologically symptomatic acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients. Neurosurgery. 1992;30:186–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
110.Chamberlain, MC. Long survival in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome-related primary central nervous system lymphoma. Cancer. 1994;73:1728–1730.3.0.CO;2-8>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed