¹ The figures on Iran's foreign trade and its composition are based on British and French diplomatic and consular reports, 1860–1909; see also: Ministère des Douanes et des Postes, Statistique commerciale: tableau gènèral du commerce avec les pays ètrangèrs, Tehran, 1900–17; Almanach de Gotha, Gotha, 1861–1911 (hereafter AG); The statesman's year-book, London, 1861–1911 (hereafter SY); Curzon, George N., Persia and the Persian Question, Vol. 2, London, 1892, 559, 561 (hereafter Curzon)Google Scholar. CF. Entner, Marvin L, Russo-Persion commercial relations, 1828–1914, Gainesille, Florida, 1965, 8–11, 22, 59, tables 1–6Google Scholar; Issawi, Charles (ed)., The economic history of Iran 1800–1914;, Chicago and London, 1971, 130–132, 135–136 (hereafter Issawi, Iran)Google Scholar; idem, ‘Iranian trade, 1800–1914’, Iranian Studies, XVI, 3–4, 1983, 230–31.

² Gilbar, Gad G., ‘Demographic deelopments in late Qājār Persia, 1870–1906’, Asian and African Studies, XI, 2, 1967/7, 154 (hereafter Gilbar, ‘Demographic development’).Google Scholar

³ Esfandiar Bahram Yaganegi, Recent finacial and monetary history of persia, New York, 1934, 18–28.

⁴ For a detailed account of the process of decline of Iran's traditional industries see Mīrzā Husayn Khān b. Muhammad Idrāhīm Khān, Tahwīldān, Jughrāfiyāyi Isfahān, ed. Manūehihr Sutūda, Tehran, 1342/1963, 93–104. see also ‘Shīrāz ’, U.K., Goverment of india, Division of the chief of the General Staff, Army Head Quarters, Gozetteer of Persia, Confidental, III, simla, 1910, 848–9 (hereafter GP, III, 1910); Gen.A.Houtum-Schindler, ‘Persia, I.Geography and statistics’, Encyclopaedia Britannica (10th ed.), xxxI, London, 1902, 623 (hererfter Houtum.Schindler, E. B. 10th. ed.); Diyā al-Dīn Sadrzādt-i Irān, Tehram, 1346/1927–, 8’9. For details on the competition in the Iranian market between British and Russian goods see ‘Report on the trade of Khorassan and Seistan for the year 1890–91’, by J.Maclean, U. K., Foreign office (hereafter FO), Diplomatic and consular reports (hereafter DCR), Annual Series (hereafter AS), 976, p.4(hereafter MacLean, ‘Khorassan ’, 1890–91, DCR 976), ‘Report on the trade and commerce of Ispahan and Yezd for the year 1894–91’, by John R. Preece, FO, DCR, AS 1662(1896), 5 (hereafter Preece, ‘Ispahan’, 1894–96, DCR 1800); ‘Report on the trade and commerce of Khorasan for the fiancial year 1895’ 97’, by Charles E.Yate, Fo, DCR, AS 2008 (1897), 6–7; ‘ Report on the trade and commerce of Azerbaijan for the year 1989–99’, by Cecil G.Wood, FO, DCR, AS 2291 (1899), 6; Lloyd c.Griscome to John Hay, teheran, 25 november 1902, M223/10, Record Group59, The National archives, Washington D. C.

⁵ E[dward] B.E[astwick], ‘Persia’, EB(8th.ed), vol. xvII, Edinburgh, 1859, 424; Jacob E.Polak Persien: Das Land und seine Bewohner, Ethnographische Schilderungen, II, Leipzig, 1865, 168–9.

⁶ Z.Z.Zbdullaev, Promyshlenost' i zarozhdenie radochego klassa Irana u kontse xI x-nachale xx vv., Baku, 1963, 58, 78 (hereafter Abdullaev); Issawi, Iran, 261. see also ‘Report on the trade of Khorassan for the year 1904–05 by P.Molesworth Sykes’, FO, DCR, AS 3499(1905), 4; Curzon, II, p. 524, n. 1.

⁷ See and compare ‘Report by consul-General [Henry M.] Jones on the trade and commerce of Tabreez for the year 1873’, U.K., House of Commons, Parliamentary Papers, Sessional Papers (hereafter PP), Accounts and papers (hereafter A&P), LXX (1875), 205–6; Curzon, II, 525, 559; SY(1904), 967; (1905), 988; (1906), 1245; (1097), 1307–8; (1908), 1345; (1909), 1092.

⁸ ‘Report by Mr.[William J.’ Dickson on the trade of persia’, PP, A‖P, LXIX (1882), 499;‘Report by Mr.[Arthur J.]Herbert on the trade and industries of Persia [for the Year 1886–87]’, FO, DCR, AS 113(1887), 6;‘Report on the trade of Tabreez for the financial year 1886–87’, by william G. Abbott, FO, DCR, AS 241 (1888), 5.

⁹ ‘Report by Consul-General [Henry M.] Jones on the state of trade in the proince of Azerbijan during the year 1872’, PP, A&P, LXV(1873), 968.

¹⁰ ‘Azerbaijan’, U.K., Government of India, Q.M.G’s. Department, Intelligence Branch, Gazetteer of persia, confidential, II, Simla, 1905, 62–3(hereafter GP, II, 1905).

¹¹ ‘Report for the years 1892–93 and 1893–94 on the Trade &c. of the consular District of Ispahan’, by John R.reece, FO DCR, AS 1376, 30–32, 55, 57–59.

¹² For a description of the structural changes in the Iranian agriculture see Gad G. Gilbar‘Persian agriculture in the late Qājār Period, 1860–1906; some economic and sociasl aspects’, Asian and African studies, XII, 3, 1978, 323–57.

¹³ See, for example, ‘Report by Major-General t.E.Gordon on a journer from Tehran to Karum andf Mohamarah, viä Kum, Sultanabad, Burujirs, Khoremabad, Dizful, and Ahwaz’, FO, DCR, Miscellaneous Series(hereafter MS) 207 (1891), 10 (hereafter Gordon, ‘Journey’, 1891, DCR, 207).

¹⁴ ‘Report on the trade and commerce of the Proince of Ghilan for the Year 1891’ by Harry L. Churchill, FO, DCR, AS 1189 (1893), 4 (hereafter Churchill, ‘Ghilan’, 1891, DCR, 1189); see also MAclean, ‘ Khorassan’, 1890–91, DCR 976, 14; ‘Report on the trade of Kerman and Persian Beluchistan from March, 1894, to March 1895’, by percy m. sykes, FO, DCR, AS 1671 (1896), 2–3, 12; Perey sykes, A history of persia, 3rd edition, II, London, 1969(reprint), 391(hereafter Sykes, History).

¹⁵ Sykes, History, II, 391.See also Gordon ‘Journey’, 1891, DCR 207, 10; Elias, ‘Khorasan’, 1895–96, DCR 1800, 23.

¹⁶ Coujet to delcasse, Téhéran, 14 May 1900, Téhéram, v (1897–1901), correspondance commerciale, Archives du Ministére des Affaires Étrangéres, Paris.

¹⁷ Sykes, History, II, 391–2. V. A. zhukovski quotes a popular song of the late nineteenth century which tells that both peasants and merchants in the opium-growing areas became wealthy. See Obraztsy Perisdskago Norodnago Tuorchesta, St. Petersburg, 1902, 104.

¹⁸ Lorimer, J. G., Gzetteer of the Persian Gulf, 'Omān, and Central Arabia, I/2, Calcutta, 1915, 2132 (hereafter Lorimer).Google Scholar

¹⁹ Sykes, History, II, 392. Although Sykes wrote in general terms, he was presumably referring primarily to those pilace in persia of which he had personal experience.

²⁰ Gordon, Thomas E., Persia revisited (1895), London, 1896, 39–40 (hereafter Gordon, Persia).Google Scholar

²¹ Preece, , ‘Ispahan’, 1894–95, DCR 1662, 24Google Scholar; ‘Report on the trade and general condition of the city and province of kermanshah’ by Rabino, H. L, FO, DCR, MS 590(1903), 13–14.Google Scholar

²² A., Houturn-Sehindler, ‘Persia (Geography and Statistics)’, EB(11th ed.), xxI, Cambridge, 1911, 194–6; SY (1906), 1247–8.Google Scholar

²³ ‘Memorandum on the opium of Persia’, in ‘Reports by Consul-General [Edward Charles] Ross on the trade and commerce of the Persian Gulf for the years 1873–78’, pp. A&P, LXXIII (1880), 255; ‘Report on the trade and commerce of the consular district of Bushire for the year 1892’, by adelbert c.Talbot, FO, DCR, AS 1252 (1893), 5; ‘chatrut’, U.K., Government of Indian, quarter Master General’s Department, Intelligence Branch, Gazetteer of Persia, ConFidential, IV, Calcutta, 1892, 89–90.

²⁴ ‘Momassanī’, GP, III (1910), 653.

²⁵ ‘Kāzarū, GP, III (1910), 503.

²⁶ Abdullaev, 59.

²⁷ Mīrzā Muhammad Hasan Khān I‘timād al-Saltana[Sanī‘ al-Dawla], Tārīkh-i muntazam-i Nāairī, lith., III, Tehran, 1300/1883, 271.281;idem, Kitāb al-ma’āb al-ma’āthir wa al–āthār, lith., Tehram 1306/1888–9, 82, 95–96, 102; idem, Mir’āl-buldān-i Nāsirī, II, Tehran, 1294/1877, 254, 282;Muhammad ‘Ali Jamālzāda, Gandī-yi Shāyyūn, Berlin, 1335/1917, 93–95 (hereafter Jamālzāda); Churchill, ‘Ghilan ’, 1891, DCR 1189, p.3.

²⁸ Jamālzāda, 94–5.

²⁹ Lorimer, I/2, 1726–8.

³⁰ For details see ‘Agda’,GP, II.(1914),12–13; ‘Gīlak’,i, II (1914), 186; Gordon, ‘journey’, 1891, DCR 207, pp. 8–9; Curzon, I, 559–619.

³¹ Gilbar, Gad G., ‘Trends in the development of prices in late qājār Iran, 1870–1906’, iranian Studies, XVI, 3–4, 1983, 180–6, 188–619Google Scholar.

³² See and compare ‘ Report by Mr.[Thomson, Ronald F., Her Majesty’s Secretary of Legation, on the Population, Revenue, Military Froce, and Trade of Persia ’. PP, A& P, LXIX (1867–1868), 250–2, 258 (hereafter Thomson, ‘Roport ’, 1868); AG (1909), 1026.Google ScholarMihdi, Malikzāda, Tārīkh-i inqilāb -i mashrūtiyyat-i īrān, III, Tehram, 1328/1949, 92Google Scholar (hereafter Malikzāda); Browne, Edward G., The Persian revolution of 1905–1909, Cambridge, 1910, 240 (hereafter Browne).Google Scholar

³³ For an example on the cost of these trips see Browne, 105. The annual allowance of shu’ā’ al-Saltans, the second son of Muzaffar al-Dīn Shāh, amounted in 1906 to qn I, 115, 000. Malikzāda, III, 92. See also Bakhash, shaul, Iran: monarchy, bureaucracy and reform under the Qajars: 1858–1896, London, 1978, 263 (hereafter Bakhash).Google Scholar

³⁴ gordon, Thomas E., A varied life, London, 1906, 315–6 (hereafter Gordon, Life); SY (1888), 875; Bakhash, 276.Google Scholar

³⁵ Gordon, Persia, 39;Google Scholarshuster, W. Morgan, The strangling of Persia, London, 1912, 247–9Google Scholar; Lambton, Ann K. S., ‘Darība (5)—Persia’, EI (2nd ed.), ii, 151.Google Scholar

³⁶ See further gilbar, ‘Demographic developments’, 146–7.

³⁷ ibid., 147–51. On the development and growth of Tehran see Mansoureh Ettehadieh, ‘Patterns in urdan development; the growth of Tehran (1852–1903) ’ in C.E. Bosworth and C.Hillenbrand (ed)., Qajar Iran, Political, social and cullural change, Edinburgh, 1983, 201–3.

³⁸ Gilbar, ‘ Demographic developments’, 153–4.

³⁹ William G. Abbott to W[illia]m Taylor Thomson, no.8, Resht, 31 March 1875, enclosure no.2 in William G. Abbott to the Earl of Derby, no.6, Resht, 6 April 1875, FO 60/374, Public Record Office, London (hereafter PRO); Hājjī Mīrzā Hasan Fasā’ī, Fārs nāma-i Nāsiri, lith., I, Tehran, 1313/1895, 337; 'Report by Consul [Henry Adrian] Churchill on the trade and commerce of the proince of Ghilan for the Year 1878’, PP, A& P, LXX (1878–79), 473–4; Ann K.S.Lambton, Landlord and peasant in Persia, London, 1953, 167–70; Bakhash, 102–4.

⁴⁰ SY, 1888, 876.

⁴¹ Stolze, F. and Andreas, F. C., Die Handelsverhāltnisse persiens, mit besonder Berücksichtgung der deutschen Interessen, Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft, no. 77. Gotha, 1885, 2–3; Curzon, I, 438–40. In the years 1888–90 to 1900–1 the central goverment revenue from rents and leases of monopolies and concessions increased from qn 1, 070, 000 to qn 5, 775, 000.See Curzon, II, 477 and Houtum-Schindler, EB (10th rd.).621.Google Scholar

⁴² W[illia]m Taylour thomson to the Earl of Derby, no. 159, Tehran, 2 November 1876, Fo60/381, PRO. These rumours were strongly denied by the Iranian ambassador in Paris. In a letter which was published in both Le figaro and The Times, he writes:‘20DB;in the assertion with sundry malevolent insinuations, that persia is upon the point of negotiating a loan. after seeking instructions from my Goverment, I am authorized formally to deny this statement, and to declare that persia has never entertained the point of negotiating a loan. After seeking instructions from my Government, I am authorized formally to deny this statement, and to declare that persia has never entertained the intention of entering upon that path of maoneyborrowing which she would consider as fatal, both to her present interests and her future prospects’. See The Times (London), 26 April 1876; Le Figaro (Paris), 25 April 1876.

⁴³ Thomson, , ‘Report’, 1868, 259; Curzon, II, p. 484, n. 1.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Sykes, , History, II, 374Google Scholar; Chirol, Valentie, The middle Eastern question or some politicial promblems of Indian defence, London, 1903, 51. Cf. Spring Rice to Sablisbury, no. 110 (89), Gulahek, 18 September 1900, FO 416/4, PRO.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Browne, 99, 417. Cf. Gordon, Life, 322.

⁴⁶ See Memorandum on ‘ Persian loans and finances’, Enclosure no. I in C. Spring Rice to Edward Grey, ‘General report on Persia for the year 1906’, no. 45 (8914), Tehran, 28 February 1907, FO 371/306, PRO.

⁴⁷ Lorimer, I/2, 2595.

⁴⁸ Gilbar, Gad G., ‘The big merchants (tujjār) and the Persian constitutional revolution of 1906’, Asian and African Studies, XI, 3, 1976–1977, 293–5Google Scholar

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