Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-16T12:58:27.978Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A multi-factor study of the development of English receptive skills by young Danish children

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2022

Teresa Cadierno ,
Mikkel B. Hansen ,
Jørgen T. Lauridsen ,
Søren W. Eskildsen ,
Katalin Fenyvesi  and
Signe Hannibal Jensen
Teresa Cadierno*
Affiliation:
University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
Mikkel B. Hansen
Affiliation:
University of Paris 8, Paris, France
Jørgen T. Lauridsen
Affiliation:
University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
Søren W. Eskildsen
Affiliation:
University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
Katalin Fenyvesi
Affiliation:
University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
Signe Hannibal Jensen
Affiliation:
University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
*
Address for correspondence:Teresa Cadierno Department of Language and Communication University of Southern Denmark Campusvej 555230 Odense M Denmark E-mail: cadierno@sdu.dk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This longitudinal study examined the influence of child-specific and environmental factors on the development of English receptive vocabulary and grammar by two groups of Danish children: Early Starters (ES) and Late Starters (LS). Age of onset, gender, language aptitude and SES significantly predicted both outcome measures. English competence beliefs (ECB) were positively related to L2 proficiency but only for children with low foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA), suggesting a dynamic relationship between ECB and FLCA. Extramural audiovisual viewing and reading played a differential role for ES vs. LS whereas extramural English speaking significantly interacted with gender. Finally, child-specific factors explained more of the variance in English proficiency than environmental factors. This finding, which contradicts results obtained in instructed settings (e.g., Sun, Steinkrauss, Tendeiro & de Bot, 2016) but parallels those in naturalistic settings (e.g., Paradis, 2011), supports the special status of English in countries with a high degree of informal contact with English.

Keywords

multi-factor studyEnglish receptive skillsyoung Danish children
Type
Research Article
Information
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition , Volume 25 , Issue 4 , August 2022 , pp. 566 - 578
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abu-Rabia, S (2004) Teachers’ role, learners’ gender differences, and FL anxiety among seventh-grade students studying English as a FL. Educational Psychology 24(5), 711–721. doi:10.1080/0144341042000263006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexiou, T (2009) Young learners’ cognitive skills and their role in foreign language vocabulary learning. In Nikolov, M (ed.), Early learning of modern foreign languages: Processes and outcomes. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 46–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
aus der Wieschen, MV (2017) Classroom practices in early foreign language teaching in Denmark: on the role of quantity and quality of exposure to English inside the classroom. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis: University of Southern Denmark.Google Scholar
Azzolini, D, Campregher, S and Madia, JE (2020) Formal instruction vs informal exposure. What matters more for teenagers’ acquisition of English as a second language? Research Papers in Education, DOI: 10.1080/02671522.2020.1789718Google Scholar
Bernhardt, EB (2011) Understanding advanced second-language reading. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bishop, DVM (2003) Test for Reception of Grammar (version 2). London: Hartcourt Assessment.Google Scholar
Blom, E and Bosma, E (2016) The sooner the better? An investigation into the role of age of onset and its relation with transfer and exposure in bilingual Frisian–Dutch children. Journal of Child Language 43, 581–607. DOI: 10.1017/S0305000915000574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borgers, N, de Leeuw, E and Hox, J (2000) Children as respondents in survey research: Cognitive development and response quality. Bulletin de Méthodologie Sociologique 66, 60–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bornstein, MH and Bradley, RH (eds.), (2003) Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child Development. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Botes, E, Dewaele, J-M. and Greiff, S (2020) The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale and academic achievement: An overview of the prevailing literature and a meta-Analysis. Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning 2, 26–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, YG and Le, VN (2018) A longitudinal of parental Social-Economic Status (SES) and young students’ learning of English as a foreign language. System 73, 4–15. doi:10.1016/j.system.2017.07.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bybee, J (2008) Usage-based grammar and second language acquisition. In Robinson, PJ and Ellis, NC (eds.), Handbook of cognitive linguistics and second language acquisition, New York: Routledge, 216–236.Google Scholar
Cadierno, T and Eskildsen, SW (eds.), (2015) Usage-based perspectives on second language learning. Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cadierno, T and Eskildsen, SW (2018) The younger, the better? A usage-based approach to learning and teaching of English in Danish primary schools. European Journal of Applied Linguistics (EuJAL ), 6(1), 171–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cadierno, T, Hansen, M, Lauridsen, JT, Eskildsen, SW, Fenyvesi, K, Hannibal Jensen, S and aus der Wieschen, MV (2020) Does younger mean better? Age of onset, learning rate and short-term L2 proficiency in young Danish learners of English. VIAL 17, 57–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrell, PL (1991) Second language reading: Reading ability or language proficiency? Applied Linguistics 12(2), 159–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, JB (1981) Twenty-five years of research on foreign language aptitude. In Diller, K (ed.), Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude, Rowley, MA: Newbury House, pp. 83–118.Google Scholar
Carroll, JB and Sapon, SS (1967) The modern language aptitude test - Elementary. New York: The Psychological Corporation. Operational test (2002, 2010 edition.), Rockville, MD: Language Learning and Testing Foundation.Google Scholar
Chondrogianni, V and Marinis, T (2011) Differential effects of internal and external factors on the development of vocabulary, tense morphology and morpho-syntax in successive bilingual children. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 1(3), 318–345. doi 10.1075/lab.1.3.05choCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Courtney, L, Graham, S, Tonkyn, A and Marinis, T (2017) Individual differences in early language learning: A study of English learners of French. Applied Linguistics 38(6), 824–847.Google Scholar
Csizér, K and Kormos, J (2009) Learning experiences, selves and motivated learning behaviour: A comparative analysis of structural models for Hungarian secondary and university learners. In Dörnyei, Z and Ushioda, E (eds), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self, Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 98–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J (1991) Interdependence of first- and second-language proficiency in bilingual children. In Bialystok, E (ed.), Language processing in bilingual children, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 70–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Bot, K (2014) The effectiveness of early foreign language learning in the Netherlands. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 4(3), 409–418. Doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.3.2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewaele, J-M and Pavelescu, LM (2019) The relationship between incommensurable emotions and willingness to communicate in English as a foreign language: a multiple case study. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, DOI:10.1080/17501229.2019.1675667Google Scholar
De Wilde, V and Eyckmans, J (2017) Game on! Young learners’ incidental language learning of English prior to instruction. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 7(4), 673–694.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Wilde, V, Brysbaert, M and Eyckmans, J (2020) Learning English through out-of-school exposure. Which levels of language proficiency are attained and which types of input are important? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 23(1), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654311433587CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dörnyei, Z (2009) The L2 motivational self system. In Dörnyei, Z and Ushioda, E (eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 Self, Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 9–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dörnyei, Z and Chan, L (2013) Motivation and vision: An analysis of future L2 self images, sensory styles, and imagery capacity across two target languages. Language Learning 63 (3), 437–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, DM and Dunn, LM (2007) PPVT-4: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test: Manual. Minneapolis: Pearson Assessments.Google Scholar
Dweck, CS (2000) Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. London: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
d’Ydewalle, G and Van de Poel, M (1999) Incidental foreign-language acquisition by children watching subtitled television programs. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 28(3), 227–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enever, J (ed.). (2011) ELLiE - Early language learning in Europe. London: British Council.Google Scholar
Fenyvesi, K, Hansen, MB and Cadierno, T (2020) The role of individual differences in younger vs. older primary school learners of English in Denmark. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 58(3), 289–322. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2017-0053CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, RA (1925) Statistical methods for research workers. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.Google Scholar
Mayo, García, P, M and García Lecumberri, ML (eds.), (2003) Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gathercole, VCM and Hoff, E (2007) Input and the acquisition of language: Three questions. In Hoff, E and Shatz, M (eds.), The handbook of language development, pp. 107–127. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Goldberg, H, Paradis, J and Crago, M (2008) Lexical acquisition over time in minority first language children learning English as a second Language. Applied Psycholinguistics 29(1), 41–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grabe, W (2009) Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gürsoy, E and Akin, F (2013) Is younger really better? Anxiety about learning a foreign language in Turkish children. Social Behavior and Personality: an International Journal 41(5), 827–841. Doi:10.2224/sbp.2013.41.5.827.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, Hannibal, S. (2017) Gaming as an English language learning resource among young children in Denmark. CALICO JOURNAL 34(1), 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinzmann, S (2013) Young language learners’ motivation and attitudes: Longitudinal, comparative and explanatory perspectives. London: A&C BlackGoogle Scholar
Hewitt, E (2009) Are parents an effective resource for learning English as a foreign language? An empirical study with complete beginner children. In Navarro Coll, M (ed.), Practical approaches to foreign language teaching and learning, Bern: Peter Lang, pp. 91–110.Google Scholar
Hoff, E (2013) Interpreting the early language trajectories of children from low-SES and language minority homes: Implications for closing achievement gaps. Developmental Psychology 49(1), 4–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horwitz, EK, Horwitz, MB and Cope, J (1986) Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal 70(2), 125–132. Doi:10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaekel, N, Schurig, M and Florian, M and Ritter, M (2017) From early starters to late finishers? A longitudinal study of early foreign language learning in school. Language Learning 67(3), 631–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, S-J (2005) Dynamic emergence of situational willingness to communicate in a second language. System 33(2), 227–292. DOI: 10.1016/j.system.2004.10.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Y-J. and Kim, T-Y (2011) The effect of Korean secondary school students' perceptual learning styles and ideal L2 self on motivated L2 behavior and English proficiency. Korean Journal of English Language and Linguistics 11(1), 21–42.Google Scholar
Kiss, C and Nikolov, M (2005) Developing, piloting, and validating an instrument to measure young learners’ aptitude. Language Learning 55(1), 99–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kormos, J (2013) New conceptualizations of language aptitude in second language attainment. In Granena, G and Long, M (eds), Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment, pp. 131–15. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuppens, AH (2010) Incidental foreign language acquisition from media exposure. Learning, Media and Technology 35(1), 65–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langacker, RW (1987) Foundations of cognitive grammar: Theoretical prerequisites. Standford: Standford University Press.Google Scholar
Linck, JA and Cunnings, I (2015) The utility and application of mixed-effects models in second language research. Language Learning 65(S1), 185–207. doi:10.1111/lang.12117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindgren, E and Muñoz, M (2013) The influence of exposure, parents, and linguistic distance on young European learners’ foreign language comprehension. International Journal of Multilingualism 10(1), 105–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lu, Z and Liu, M (2011) Foreign language anxiety and strategy use: A study with Chinese undergraduate learners. Journal of Language Teaching and Research 2, 1298–1305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyons, D (2014) The L2 self-concept in second language learning motivation: A longitudinal study of Korean University students. In Csizér, K and Magid, M (eds.), The impact of self-concept on language learning, Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 108–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyster, R and Saito, K (2010) Oral feedback in classroom SLA. A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 32, 265–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacIntyre, PD (1999) Language anxiety: A review of the research for language teachers. In Young, D.J. (ed.), Affect in foreign language and second language learning: A practical guide to creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere, New York: McGraw Hill, pp. 24–45.Google Scholar
MacIntyre, PD (2017) An overview of language anxiety research and trends in its development. In Gkonou, C, Daubney, M and Dewaele, J-M (eds.), New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications, Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 11–30.Google Scholar
Mercer, S and Ryan, S (2010) A mindset for E F L: Learners’ beliefs about the role of natural talent. ELT Journal 64, 436–444. Doi:10.1093/elt/ccp083.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Djigunović, Mihaljević, J. (2015) Individual differences among young EFL learners: Age- or proficiency-related? A look from the affective learner factors perspective. In Mihaljević Djigunović, J and Medved Krajnović, M (eds.), Early learning and teaching of English. New dynamics of primary English, Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 10–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mihaljević Djigunović, L and Lopriore, L (2011) The learner: Do individual differences matter? In Enever, J (ed.), ELLiE: Early language learning in Europe, London: British Council, pp. 43–59.Google Scholar
Djigunović, Mihaljević, Nikolov, J, M. (2019) Motivation of young language learners. In Lamb, M, Csizér, K, Henry, A and Ryan, S (eds.), Palgrave Macmillan handbook of motivation for language learning, Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave: Macmillan, pp. 515–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C (2006) The effects of age on foreign language learning. In Muñoz, C (ed.), Age and the rate of foreign language learning, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp. 1–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C (2008) Symmetries and asymmetries of age effects in naturalistic and instructed L2 learning. Applied Linguistics 29(4), 578–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C (2011) Input and long-term effects of starting age in foreign language learning. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 49, 113–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C (2014) The association between aptitude components and language skills in young learners. In Pawlak, M and Aronin, L (eds.), Essential topics in applied linguistics and multilingualism, Studies in honor of David Singleton, Switzerland: Springer, pp. 51–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C (2020a) Boys like games and girls like movies. Age and gender differences in out-of-school contact with English. Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada 33(1). https://doi.org/10.1075/resla.18042.munGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C (2020b) Cognate recognition by young multilingual language learners: The role of age and exposure. In Bardel, C and Sánchez, L (eds.), Third language acquisition: Age, proficiency and multilingualism, Berlin: Language Science, pp.145–165.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C, Cadierno, T and Casas, I (2018) Different starting points for early English language learning: A comparative study of Danish and Spanish young learners. Language Learning 68 (4), 1076–1109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C and Lindgren, E (2011) Out-of-school factors – The home. In Enever, J (ed.), ELLiE: Early language learning in Europe, pp. 103–124. London, UK: British Council.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C and Tragant, E (2001) Motivation and attitudes towards L2. Some effects of age and instruction. Eurosla Yearbook 1, 211–224. John Benjamins Publishing Company.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C and Tragant, E (2015) “I would like to learn English like my father”: A 7-year longitudinal study of young learners’ attitudes towards English (FL). Paper presented at the 2015 AAAL (American Association of Applied Linguistics) Annual Conference. Toronto, Canada: March 21- 24, 2015.Google Scholar
Noels, K, Pelletier, LG, Clement, R and Vallerand, RJ (2000) Why are you learning a second language? Motivational orientations and self-determination theory. Language Learning 53(s1), 33–64. doi:10.1111/1467-9922.53223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
OECD (2016) Inequality in Denmark through the looking glass. Economics Department Working Papers No. 1341.Google Scholar
Paradis, J (2011) Individual differences in child English second language acquisition: Comparing child-internal and child-external factors. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 1(3), 213–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfenninger, SE and Singleton, D (2017) Beyond age effects in instructional L2 learning. Revisiting the age factor. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Puimège, E and Peters, E (2019) Learners’ English vocabulary knowledge prior to formal instruction: The role of learner-related and word-related variables: vocabulary knowledge prior to formal instruction. Language Learning 69(4), 943–977. doi.org/10.1111/lang.12364CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rama, PS, Black, RW, van Es, E and Warschauer, M (2012) Affordances for second language learning in world of Warcraft. ReCALL 24, 322–338. doi.org/10.1017/S0958344012000171CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, P (2005) Aptitude and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 25, 45–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sáfár, A and Kormos, J (2008) Revisiting problems with foreign language aptitude. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 46, 113–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saville-Troike, M (2006) Introducing second language acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Semel, E, Wiig, EH and Secord, WA (2013) CELF-4 - Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals – Danish version. Enschede, NL: Ipskamp Drukkers BV.Google Scholar
Sun, H, Steinkrauss, R, Tendeiro, J and de Bot, K (2016) Individual differences in very young children's English acquisition in China: Internal and external factors. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 19(3), 550–566.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sun, H, Yin, B, Amsah, N. F. B. B. and O'Brien, BA (2018) Differential effects of internal and external factors in early bilingual vocabulary learning: The case of Singapore. Applied Psycholinguistics 39 (2), 383–411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sun, H, Bornstein, MH and Esposito, G (2021) The specificity Principle in young dual language learners’ English development. Child Development. DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13558CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sundqvist, P (2016) Gaming and young language learners. In Farr, F and Murray, L (eds.), The Routledge handbook of language learning, New York: Routledge, pp. 446–458.Google Scholar
Sundqvist, P and Sylvén, LK (2016) Extramural English in teaching and learning. From theory and research to practice. London: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sylvén, LK and Sundqvist, P (2012) Gaming as extramural English L2 learning and L2 proficiency among young learners. ReCALL 24(3), 302–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tellier, A and Roehr-Brackin, K (2013) The development of language learning aptitude and metalinguistic awareness in primary-school children: A classroom study. Essex Research Reports in Linguistics 62, 1–28Google Scholar
Thorhauge, AM and Gregersen, AL (2015) Computerspil og hverdagsliv: Et arbejdspapir. København: Institut for Medier, Erkendelse og Formidling.Google Scholar
Unsworth, S, Argyri, F, Cornips, L, Hulk, A, Sorace, A and Tsimpli, I (2014) The role of age of onset and input in early child bilingualism in Greek and Dutch. Applied Psycholinguistics 35(4), 765–805. DOI:10.1017/S0142716412000574CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Unsworth, S, Persson, L, Prins, T and de Bot, K (2015) An investigation of factors affecting early foreign language learning in the Netherlands. Applied Linguistics 36(5), 527–548.Google Scholar
Zentner, M and Renaud, O (2007) Origins of adolescents’ ideal self: An intergenerational perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (3), 557–574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Cadierno et al. supplementary material

Cadierno et al. supplementary material

Download Cadierno et al. supplementary material(File)
File 285.1 KB