Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T03:35:53.147Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Consciousness, explanatory inversion, and cognitive science

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 May 2011

John R. Searle
John R. Searle
Affiliation:
Department of Philosophy, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, Electronic mail: searle@cogsci.berkeley.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Cognitive science typically postulates unconscious mental phenomena, computational or otherwise, to explain cognitive capacities. The mental phenomena in question are supposed to be inaccessible in principle to consciousness. I try to show that this is a mistake, because all unconscious intentionality must be accessible in principle to consciousness; we have no notion of intrinsic intentionality except in terms of its accessibility to consciousness. I call this claim the “Connection Principle.” The argument for it proceeds in six steps. The essential point is that intrinsic intentionality has aspectual shape: Our mental representations represent the world under specific aspects, and these aspectual features are essential to a mental state's being the state that it is.

Once we recognize the Connection Principle, we see that it is necessary to perform an inversion on the explanatory models of cognitive science, an inversion analogous to the one evolutionary biology imposes on preDarwinian animistic modes of explanation. In place of the original intentionalistic explanations we have a combination of hardware and functional explanations. This radically alters the structure of explanation, because instead of a mental representation (such as a rule) causing the pattern of behavior it represents (such as rule-governed behavior), there is a neurophysiological cause of a pattern (such as a pattern of behavior), and the pattern plays a functional role in the life of the organism. What we mistakenly thought were descriptions of underlying mental principles in, for example, theories of vision and language were in fact descriptions of functional aspects of systems, which will have to be explained by underlying neurophysiological mechanisms. In such cases, what looks like mentalistic psychology is sometimes better construed as speculative neurophysiology. The moral is that the big mistake in cognitive science is not the overestimation of the computer metaphor (though that is indeed a mistake) but the neglect of consciousness.

Keywords

brain functioncognitioncomputationconsciousnessexplanationFreudgrammarintentionalityintrospectionlanguageperceptionunconscious processes
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 13 , Issue 4 , December 1990 , pp. 585 - 596
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1990

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allport, A. (1988) What concept of consciousness? In: Consciousness in contemporary science, ed. Marcel, A. J. and Bisiach, E.. Oxford University Press. [AWY]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1982) Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review 89:369–406. [EAC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1983) The architecture of cognition. Harvard University Press. [EAC]Google Scholar
Baars, B. (1988) A cognitive theory of consciousness. Cambridge University Press. [GU]Google Scholar
Balota, D. A. & Chumbley, J. I. (1984) Are lexical decisions a good measure of lexical access? The role of word frequency in the neglected decision stage. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 10:340–57. [DH]Google ScholarPubMed
Barge, J. A. (1989) Conditional automaticity: Varieties of automatic influence in social perception and cognition. In: Unintended thought, ed. Uleman, J. S. & Bargh, J. A. Guilford Publications. [JSU]Google Scholar
Bealer, G. (1984) Mind and anti-mind. Midwest Studies in Philosophy 9:283–328. [GR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, N. (1978) Troubles with functionalism. In: Minnesota Studies in Philosophy of Science IX, ed. Savage, C. W., [asp, GU]Google Scholar
(1980) Are absent qualia impossible? The Philosophical Review 89:257–74. [asp, GU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1986) Advertisement for a semantics for psychology. In: Studies in the philosophy of mind, vol. 10, Midwest Studies in Philosophy, ed. French, P., Euhling, T. & Wettstein, H., University of Minnesota Press. [GR]Google Scholar
Bridgeman, B. (1988) The biology of behavior and mind. Wiley. [BB]Google Scholar
Carlson, R. A. & Dulany, D. E. (1985) Conscious attention and abstraction in concept learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 11:45–58. [RAC]Google Scholar
(1988) Diagnostic reasoning with circumstantial evidence. Cognitive Psychology 20:463–92. [RAC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheesman, J. & Merikle, P. M. (1985) Word recognition and consciousness. In: Reading research, vol. 5, ed. Besner, D., Waller, T. G. & MacKinnon, G. E. Academic Press. [GU]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1976) Reflections on language. Temple Smith. [aJES]Google Scholar
(1980a) Rules and representations. Columbia University Press. [NC]Google Scholar
(1980b) Rules and representations. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:1–61. [DH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1986) Knowledge of language. Its nature, origin, and use. Praeger Special Studies. [aJRS, GR]Google Scholar
Cowie, A. (1979) Cortical maps and visual perception. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 31:1–17. [AIH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cratchfield, J., Farmer, J., Packard, N. & Shaw, R. (1987) Chaos. Scientific American 255:46–57. [CAS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1979) Twelve misunderstandings of kin selection. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 51:184–200. [AIH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Groot, A. M. B. (1985) Word-context effects in word naming and lexical decision. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 37A:281–97. [DH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demopoulos, W. & Matthews, R. J. (1983) On the hypothesis that grammars are mentally represented. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6(3):423–86. [aJES]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennett, D. (1981) Brainstorms. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [DM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devitt, M. (1981) Designation. Columbia University Press. [GR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixon, N. (1981) Preconscious processing. John Wiley. [GU]Google Scholar
Dretske, F. (1981) Knowledge and the flow of information. MIT Press. [GR]Google Scholar
(1981) Explaining behavior: Reasons in a world of causes. MIT Press. [GR]Google Scholar
Dulany, D. E. (1968) Awareness, rules, and prepositional control: A confrontation with S-R behavior theory. In: Verbal behavior and general behavior theory, ed. Dixon, T. R. & Horton, D. L.Prentice-Hall. [RAC]Google Scholar
(1984) A strategy for investigating consciousness. Paper presented at meetings of the Psychonomic Society, San Antonio, Texas. [MAC]Google Scholar
Dulany, D. E., Carlson, R. A. & Dewey, G. I. (1984) A case of syntactical learning and judgment: How conscious and how abstract? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 114:25–32. [RAC]Google Scholar
(1985) On consciousness in syntactical learning and judgment: A reply to Reber, Allen, and Regan. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 114:25–32. [EAC]Google Scholar
Eccles, J. C. (1970) Facing reality: Adventures of a brain scientist. Springer-Verlag. [WJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellenberger, H. F. (1970) The discovery of the unconscious: The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry. Basic Books. [AWY]Google Scholar
Erdelyi, M. H. (1985) Psychoanalysis: Freud's cognitive psychology. W. H Freeman. [DH]Google Scholar
(1986) Experimental indeterminacies in the dissociation paradigm of subliminal perception. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9:30–31 [DH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1975) The Language of thought. Thomas Y. Crowell. [DM]Google Scholar
(1983) The modularity of mind. MIT Press. [DH]Google Scholar
(1985) Précis on “The modularity of mind.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:1–42. [DH]Google Scholar
(1987) Psychosemantics. MIT Press. [GR]Google Scholar
(1990) Psychosemantics, or where do truth conditions come from? In: Mind and cognition, ed. W. Lycan. [GR]Google Scholar
Freeman, W. J. (1975) Mass action in the nervous system. Academic Press. [WJF]Google Scholar
(in press) Sobre el error de fijar origen del consciencia. Intersciencia. [WJF]Google Scholar
Freeman, W. & Schneider, W. (1982) Changes in spatial patterns of rabbit olfactory EEG with conditioning to odors. Psychophysiology 19:44–56. [CAS]Google Scholar
Freeman, W. & Skarda, C. (1985) Spatial EEG patterns, nonlinear dynamics and perception: The neo-Sherringtonian view. Brain Research Reviews 10:147–75. [CAS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freidin, R. & Quicoli, A. C. (1989) Zero stimulation for parameter setting. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12(2):338–39. [RF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freud, S. (1915) The unconscious, reprinted (1959) in Collected Papers, vol. 4. Basic Books. [aJRS]Google Scholar
(1949) Outline of psycho-analysis, trans. Strachey, James. Hogarth Press. [aJRS]Google Scholar
Goldman-Rakic, P. (1987) Development of cortical circuitry and cognitive function. Child Development 58:601–22. [PDZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, R. L. (1963) Distortion of visual space as inappropriate constancy scaling. Nature 1939:678–80. [AWY]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, R. L. (1966) Eye and brain: The psychology of seeing. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. [AWY]Google Scholar
Halligan, P. W. & Marshall, J. C. (1988) Blindsight and insight in visuo-spatial neglect. Nature Dec. 22. [NC]Google Scholar
Harman, Gilbert (1990) The intrinsic quality of experience. Philosophical Perspectives 4:31–52. [GH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, N. A. & Broadbent, D. E. (1988) Two modes of learning for interactive tasks. Cognition 28:249–76. [DH, GU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, T., Lewicki, P., Czyzewska, M. & Boss, A. (1989) Self-perpetuating development of encoding biases in person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57:373–87. [MC]Google Scholar
Hille, B. (1983) Theories of anesthesia: General perturbations versus specific receptors. In: Molecular menchanisms of anesthesia (Progress in anesthesiology, vol. 2), ed. Fink, B. R. Raven Press. [JCK]Google Scholar
Hinton, G. (1985) Learning in parallel networks. Byte 10:265. [CAS]Google Scholar
Holender, D. (1986) Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9:1–66. [DH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1987a) Semantic activation without conscious identification: Can progress be made? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:768–73. [DH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1987b) Is the unconscious amenable to scientific scrutiny? Canadian Psychology 28:120–24. [DH]Google Scholar
(in press) Comment: Writing systems and the modularity of language. In: Modularity and the motor theory of speech perception, ed. I. G. Mattingly & M. Studdert-Kennedy. Erlbaum. [DH]Google Scholar
Hopfield, J. & Tank, D. (1986) Computing with neural circuits: A model. Science 233:625–33. [CAS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horn, B. K. P. (1977) Understanding image intensities. Artificial Intelligence 8:201–32. [AIH]Google Scholar
Huttenlocher, P. R. (1979) Synaptic density in the human frontal cortex-Developmental changes and the effects of aging. Brain Research 163:195–205. [PDZ]Google ScholarPubMed
James, W. (1890) The principles of psychology. Holt. [GU]Google Scholar
(1890/1950) The principles of psychology. Dover Publications. [JL]Google Scholar
(1896) Principles of psychology (Great Books edition, 1952) University of Chicago Press. [JS]Google Scholar
Kahneman, D., Slovic, P. & Tversky, A. (1982) Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Cambridge University Press. [MP-P]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klatzky, R. L. (1984) Memory and awareness: An information-processing perspective. W. H Freeman. [GU]Google Scholar
Kohonen, T. (1984) Self-organization and associative memory. Springer Verlag. [CAS]Google Scholar
Kushwaha, R., Williams, W. J., Shevrin, H. & Sachellares, C. (1989) An information flow technique in ERP application. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society 11th Annual Conference. Session 2770:715–16. [HS]Google Scholar
Lehky, S. R. & Sejnowski, T. J. (1988) Network models of shape from shading. Nature 333:452–54. [AIH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewicki, P. (1986) Nonconscious social information processing. Academic Press. [GU]Google Scholar
Lewicki, P. & Hill, T. (1989) On the status of nonconscious processes in human cognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 118:239–41. [MC]Google Scholar
Limber, J. (1978) Goodbye behaviorism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1:581–83. [JL]Google Scholar
(1982) What can chimps tell us about the origins of language? In: Language development, vol. 2, ed. Kuczaj, S.. Erlbaum. [JL]Google Scholar
Lisberger, S. G. (1988) The neural basis for learning of simple motor skills. Science 242:728–35. [aJRS]Google Scholar
Lisberger, S. G. & Pavelko, T. A. (1988) Brain stem neurons in modified pathways for motor learning in the primate vestibulo-ocular reflex. Science 242:771–73. [aJRS]Google Scholar
Lloyd, D. (1989) Simple minds. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [DL]Google Scholar
(in press) Leaping to conclusions: Connectionism, consciousness, and the computational mind. In: Connectionism and the philosophy of mind, ed. T. Horgan & J. Tienson. Kluwer Academic Publishers. [DL]Google Scholar
Marcel, T. (1983) Conscious and unconscious perception: Experiments on visual masking and word recognition. Cognitive Psychology 15:197–237. [GU]Google Scholar
McKoon, G. & Ratcliff, R. (1986) Inferences about predictable events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 12:82–91. [JSU]Google Scholar
Michenfelder, J. H. (1988) Assessing the brain. In: Anesthesia and the brain, ed. Michenfelder, J. H. Churchill Livingstone. [JCK]Google Scholar
Millikan, R. (1984) Language, thought, and other biological categories. MIT Press. [GR]Google Scholar
(1986) Thoughts without laws, cognitive science with content. Philosophical Review 95:47–80. [AC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neely, J. H. (in press) Semantic priming effect in visual word recognition: A selective review of current findings and theories. In: Basic processes in reading: Visual word recognition, ed. D. Besner & G. Humphreys. Erlbaum. [DH]Google Scholar
Neely, J. H., Reefe, D. E. & Ross, K. L. (1989) Semantic priming in the lexical decision task: Roles of prospective prime-generated expectancies and retrospective semantic matching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 15:1003–19. [DH]Google ScholarPubMed
Newman, L. A. & Uleman, J. S. (in press) Assimilation and contrast effects in spontaneous trait inferences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 16. [JSU]Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. & Ross, L. (1980) Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Prentice-Hall. [JSU]Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. & Wilson, T. (1977) On saying more than we can know. Psychological Review 84(3):231–59. [GR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pope, K. S. & Singer, J. L. (1978) Regulation of the stream of consciousness: Toward a theory of ongoing thought. In: Consciousness and self-regulation, vol. 2, ed. Schwartz, G. E. & Shapiro, D.. John Wiley. [GU]Google Scholar
Puccetti, R. (1981) The case for mental duality: Evidence from split-brain data and other considerations. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:93–123. [JCK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, H. (1975) The meaning of meaning. In: Mind, language, and reality: Philosophical papers, vol. 2, ed. Putnam, H.. Cambridge University Press. [GH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quine, W. V. O. (1960) Word and object. Technology Press of MIT and John Wiley & Sons. [aJRS]Google Scholar
Reber, A. S. (1989) Implicit learning and tacit knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 118:219–35. [DH]Google Scholar
Reber, A. S., Kassim, S. M., Lewis, S. & Cantor, S. (1980) On the relationship between implicit and explicit modes of learning a complex rule structure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Performance 6:492–502. [GU]Google Scholar
Reeves, J. W. (1965) Thinking about thinking: Studies in the background of some psychological approaches. Seeker and Warburg. [AWY]Google Scholar
Reingold, E. M. & Merikle, P. M. (1988) Using direct and indirect measures to study perception without awareness. Perception and Psychophysics 44:563–75. [DH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rey, G. (1986) What's really going on in Searle's “Chinese Room.” Philosophical Studies 50:169–85. [GR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rips, L. J. (1983) Cognitive processes in propositional reasoning. Psychological Review 90:38–71. [RAC]Google Scholar
Rock, I. (1984) Perception. W. H Freeman. [aJRS, GR]Google Scholar
Rogers, R. L., Papanicolaou, A. C, Baumann, S. B., Eisenberg, H. M. & Saydjari, C. (1990) Spatially distributed cortical excitation patterns of auditory processing during contralateral and ipsilateral stimulation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2:44–50. [JCK]Google Scholar
Rose, S. (1987) Molecules and minds. Open University Press. [CAS]Google Scholar
Rosenthal, David M. (1985) Intentionality. Midwest Studies. Philosophy X: 151–84 (reprinted, with postscript [1989] in Rerepresentation: Readings in the philosophy of mental representation, ed. S. Silvers. D. Reidel Publishing Co.) [DMR]Google Scholar
(1986) Two concepts of consciousness. Philosophical Studies 49(3):329–59. [DMR]Google Scholar
(1990) A theory of consciousness. Report, Center for Interdisciplinary Research (ZiF), Research Group on Mind and Brain, University of Bielefeld, West Germany. [DMR]Google Scholar
Ross, L., Lepper, M. R. & Hubbard, M. (1975) Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: Biased attribution processes in the debriefing paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32:880–92. [JSU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rozin, P. & Schull, J. (1988) The adaptive-evolutionary point of view in experimental psychology. In: S. S. Stevens' handbook of experimental psychology, 2d ed., ed. Atkinson, R., Herrnstein, R., Lindzey, G. & Luce, R. D. Wiley. [JS]Google Scholar
Sarna, S. K. & Otterson, M. F.Gastrointestinal motility: Some basic concepts. Pharmacology Supplement 36:7–14. [aJRS]Google Scholar
Schacter, D. L. (1987) Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13:501–18. [DH, JSU]Google Scholar
Schacter, D. L., McAndrews, M. P. & Moscovitch, M. (1988) Access to consciousness: Dissociations between implicit and explicit knowledge in neuropsychological syndromes. In: Thought without language, ed. Weiskrantz, L.. Clarendon Press. [DH]Google Scholar
Schull, J. (1990) Are species intelligent? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13(1):63–75. [JS]Google Scholar
(in press) Evolution and learning: Analogies and interactions. In: The evolution paradigm, ed. Ervin Laszlo. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. [JS]Google Scholar
(in preparation) William James and the nature of selection. [JS]Google Scholar
Searle, J. R. (1969) Speech acts: An essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge University Press. [rJRS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1976) The rules of the language game (review of Noam Chomsky, ”Reflections on Language”). In: The Times Literary Supplement, Sept. 10. [aJRS]Google Scholar
(1980a) Minds, brains, and programs. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:417–57. [aJRS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1980b) Intrinsic intentionality. Reply to criticisms of Minds, brains and programs. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:450–6. [aJRS]Google Scholar
(1980c) Rules and causation. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:37–38. [DH]Google Scholar
(1983) Intentionality. An essay in the philosophy of mind. Cambridge University Press. [aJRS, RAC, DMR, PDZ]Google Scholar
(1984a) Minds, Brains and Science. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
(1984b) Intentionality and its place in nature. Synthese 61:3–16. [aJRS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1987) Indeterminacy, empiricism and the first person. Journal of Philosophy March: 123–46. [aJRS]Google Scholar
(1989) Consciousness, unconsciousness, and intentionality. Philosophical Tendencies 17(1)269–284. [JRS]Google Scholar
(1990) Is the brain a digital computer? Presidential address to the Pacific Division of the American Philosophical Association, Los Angeles, March. [rJRS]Google Scholar
Shallice, T. (1972) Dual functions of consciousness. Psychological Review 79:383–93. [GU]Google Scholar
Sherrington, C. (1906) The integrative action of the nervous system. Yale University Press. [CAS]Google Scholar
Shevrin, H. (1988) Unconscious conflict: A convergent psychodynamic and electrophysiological approach. In: Psychodynamics and cognition, ed. Horowitz, M. S.. University of Chicago Press. [HS]Google Scholar
Shevrin, H., Williams, W. J., Marshall, R. E., Hertel, R. K., Bond, J. A. & Brakel, L. A. (1988) Event-related potential indicators of the dynamic unconscious. International Conference on Psychophysiology, Prague. [HS]Google Scholar
Skarda, C. (1986) Explaining behavior: Bringing the brain back in. Inquiry 29:187–202. [CAS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skarda, C. & Freeman, W. (1987) How brains make chaos in order to make sense of the world. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:161–73. [CAS]Google Scholar
(1988) EEG research of neural dynamics: Implications for models of learning and memory. In: Systems with learning and memory, ed. Delacour, J. & Levy, J. C. S.. Elsevier. [CAS]Google Scholar
Stampe, D. (1977) Towards a causal theory of linguistic representation. Midwest Studies in Philosophy, ed. French, P., Euhling, T. & Wettstein, H.. University of Minnesota Press. [GR]Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E. & Fiske, S. T. (1975) Point-of-view and perceptions of causality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32:439–45. [JSU]Google Scholar
Thach, W. T. (1978) The cerebellum. In: Medical physiology, ed. Mountcastle, V. B., Mosby Press. [CAS]Google Scholar
Titchener, E. B. (1910) A textbook of psychology. Macmillan. [JCK]Google Scholar
Treisman, A. (1985) Preattentive processing in vision. Computer Vision, Graphics and Image Processing 31:156–77. [AIH]Google Scholar
(1988) Features and objects. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 40:201–238. [AIH]Google Scholar
Treisman, A. & Gelade, G. (1980) A feature-integration theory of attention. Cognitive Psychology 12:97–136. [AIH]Google Scholar
Treisman, A. & Gormican, S. (1988) Feature analysis in early vision: Evidence from search asymmetries. Psychological Review 95:15–48. [AIH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uleman, J. S. (1987) Consciousness and control: The case of spontaneous trait inferences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 13:337–54. [JSU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1989) A framework for thinking intentionally about unintended thoughts. In: Unintended thought, ed. Uleman, J. S. & Bargh, J. A. Guilford Publications. [JSU]Google Scholar
Underwood, G. (1978) Attentional selectivity and behavioural control. In: Strategies of information processing, ed. Underwood, G.. Academic Press. [GU]Google Scholar
(1981) Lexical recognition of embedded unattended words: Some implications for reading processes. Ada Psychologia 47:267–83. [GU]Google Scholar
(1982) Attention and awareness in cognitive and motor skills. In: Aspects of consciousness, vol. 3, ed. Underwood, G.. Academic Press. [GU]Google Scholar
Van Riemadijk, H. & Williams, E. (1986) Introduction to the theory of grammar. MIT Press. [MP-P]Google Scholar
Vickers, M. D. A. (1987) Detecting consciousness by clinical means. In: Consciousness, awareness and pain in general anaesthesia, ed. Rosen, M. & Lunn, J. N. Butterworths. [JCK]Google Scholar
Von Helmholtz, H. L. F. (1856–1867) Treatise on physiological optics. Trans. from German pub. 1924–1925. Optical Society of America. [AWY]Google Scholar
Weiskrantz, L. (1982) A follow-up study of blindsight. Paper presented at the Fifth INS European Conference, Deauville, France, June 16–18. [aJRS]Google Scholar
Williams, W. J., Shevrin, H. & Marshall, R. E. (1987) Information modeling and analysis of event-related potentials. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering (U.BME-34) 12:928–37. [HS]Google Scholar
Williams, W. J. & Jeong, J. (1989) New time-frequency distributions: Theory and applications. Transactions of International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, session 1692–2, VS: 1243–47. [HS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wittgenstein, L. (1953) Philosophical investigations. Macmillan. [GR]Google Scholar
Zeki, S. & Shipp, S. (1988) The functional logic of cortical connections. Nature 335:311–17. [AIH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed