Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T16:43:48.417Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A longitudinal examination of French and English reading comprehension in French immersion programs in Canada

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 March 2022

Daniel Bérubé Open the ORCID record for Daniel Bérubé [Opens in a new window] ,
Yuuko Uchikoshi Open the ORCID record for Yuuko Uchikoshi [Opens in a new window]  and
Stefka H. Marinova-Todd
Daniel Bérubé*
Affiliation:
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Yuuko Uchikoshi
Affiliation:
Faculty of Education, UC Davis, Davis, CA, USA
Stefka H. Marinova-Todd
Affiliation:
Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
*
*Corresponding author. Email: dberube2@uottawa.ca
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Parental level of education, instruction time, and amount of language practice that children receive have enhanced our understanding of how bilingual and multilingual children learn to comprehend text. Guided by the simple view of reading and the interdependence hypothesis, this longitudinal study conducted in Canadian French immersion programs examined the (a) within- and cross-language association between oral language skills and reading comprehension of bilingual English–French and multilingual children and (b) patterns of growth, while controlling for possible influences of parental level of education and methods of instruction on reading achievement. The sample included 150 children tested once at the beginning of Grade 4 (T1) and again at the end of Grade 4 (T2) and in Grade 6 (T3). Individual growth modeling revealed that bilingual and multilingual children showed similar development in oral language and reading skills across the timeframe. Moreover, growth in English and French reading comprehension was associated with within-language variables. English reading comprehension in Grade 4 was also associated with cross-language variables, including French listening comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. Reading development in the second and third language is enhanced in contexts where classroom instruction, as well as social, economic, and educational opportunities to learn, is equivalent for all students.

Keywords

reading comprehensionlanguage developmentmultilingualismbilingualismtransfersimple view of reading
Type
Original Article
Information
Applied Psycholinguistics , Volume 43 , Issue 3 , May 2022 , pp. 607 - 640
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aud, S., Hussar, W., Johnson, F., Kena, G., Roth, E., Manning, E., & Notter, L. (2012). The condition of education 2012. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.Google Scholar
Au-Yeung, K., Hipfner-Boucher, K., Chen, X., Pasquarella, A., D’Angelo, N., & Deacon, H. (2015). Development of English and French language and literacy skills in EL1 and EL French immersion students in the early grades. Reading Research Quarterly, 50(2), 233–254. doi: 10.1002/rrq.95 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bérubé, D., & Marinova-Todd, S. H. (2012). The development of language and reading skills in the second and third languages of multilingual children in French immersion. International Journal of Multilingualism, 9(3), 272–293. doi: 10.1080/14790718.2011.63178 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bos, W., & Pietsch, M. (2006). KESS 4 competencies and attitudes of students at the end of 4th grade in primary schools in Hamburg. Hamburg studies on quality in the educational system (vol. 1). Munster: Waxmann.Google Scholar
Bosetti, L. D., Van Pelt, T., & Allison, D. (2017). The changing landscape of school choice in Canada: From pluralism to parental preference. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 25(38), 1–26. doi: 10.145507epaa.25.2685 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourgoin, R., & Dicks, J. (2019). Learning to read in multiple languages: A study of exploring allophone students’ reading development in French immersion. Language and Literacy, 21(2), 10–28. doi: 10.20360/langandlit29466 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
British Columbia Ministry of Education. (2019). BC curriculum comparison guide. British Columbia, Canada. Retrieved from https://curriculum.gov.bc.ca/sites/curriculum.gov.bc.ca/files/pdf/ Google Scholar
Cardinal, L. (2013). The impact of the commission on bilingualism and biculturalism on Francophone minority communities in Canada. Canadian Issues, 12, 18–22.Google Scholar
Carlisle, J. F., Beeman, M., Davis, L. H., & Spharim, G. (1999). Relationship of metalinguistic capabilities and reading achievement for children who are becoming bilingual. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 459–478. doi: 10.1017/S0142716499004014 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J. (2003). The effect of linguistic distance, L2 status and age on cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition. In Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B., & Jessner, U. (Eds.), Cross-linguistic influence on third language acquisition: Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 8–20). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J., & Valencia, J. F. (1994). Additive trilingualism: Evidence from the Basque country. Applied Psycholinguistics, 15, 195–207. doi: 10.1017/S0142716400005324 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dagenais, D. (2003). Accessing imagined communities through multiculturalism and immersion education. Journal of Language, Identity, & Education, 2(4), 269–283. doi: 10.1207/S15327701JLIE0204_3 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Cat, C. (2021). Socioeconomic status as a proxy for input in bilingual children? Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(2), 301–324. doi: 10.1017/S014271642000079X CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeWiele, C. B. & Edgerton, J. D. (2021). Opportunity or inequality? The paradox of French immersion education in Canada. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development , early online. Doi: 10.1080/01434632.2020.1865988 Google Scholar
Dufva, M., & Voeten, M. J. M. (1999). Native language literacy and phonological memory as prerequisites for learning English as a foreign language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20(3), 329–348. doi: 10.1017/S014271649900301X CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan, T. E., Duncan, S. C., & Strycker, L. A. (2011). An introduction to latent variable growth curve modeling (2nd Edition). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, M. (1997). Peabody picture vocabulary test-third edition. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Dunn, L. M., Thériault-Whalen, C. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1993). Échelle de vocabulaire en image peabody. Toronto, Ontario: Psycan.Google Scholar
Duran, L., Roseth, C. J., & Hoffman, P. (2015). Effects of transitional bilingual education on Spanish-speaking preschoolers’ literacy and language development: Year 2 results. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36(4), 921–951. doi: 10.1017/S0142716413000568.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duursma, E. D., Romero-Contreras, S., Szuber, A., Proctor, P., Snow, C., August, D., & Calderon, M. (2007). The role of home literacy and language environment on bilinguals’ English and Spanish vocabulary development. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28, 171–190. doi: 10.1017/S0142716407070099 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erdos, C., Genesee, F., Savage, R., & Haigh, C. (2011). Individual differences in second language reading outcomes. International Journal of Bilingualism, 15(1), 3–25, doi: 10.1177/136700691037.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Errasti, M. P. S. (2003). Acquiring writing skills in a third language: The positive effects of bilingualism. International Journal of Bilingualism, 7(1), 27–42. doi: 10.1177/13670069030070010301 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Extra, G., & Yagmur, K. (2012). Language rich Europe: Trends in policies and practices for multilingualism in Europe. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Farnia, F., & Geva, E. (2013). Growth and predictors of change in English language learners’ reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 36(4), 389–421. doi: 10.1111/jrir.12003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Genesse, F., & Fortune, T. W. (2014). Bilingual education and at-risk children. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Learning Education, 2(2), 196–209. doi. 10.1075/jicb.2.2.03gen CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geva, E., & Farnia, F. (2012). Developmental changes in the nature of language proficiency and reading fluency paint a more complex view of reading comprehension in ELL and EL1. Reading & Writing, 25(8), 1819–1845. doi: 10.1007/s11145-011-9333-8 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geva, E., & Siegel, L. S. (2000). Orthographic and cognitive factors in the concurrent development of basic reading skills in two languages. Reading & Writing, 12, 1–30. doi: 10.1023/A:1008017710115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gorter, D., & Cenoz, J. (2017). Language education policy and multilingual assessment. Language and Education, 31(3), 231–248. doi: 10.1080/09500782.2016.1261892 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottardo, A., Javier, C., Farnia, F., Mak, L., & Geva, E. (2014). Bidirectional cross-linguistic relations of first and second language skills in reading comprehension of Spanish-speaking English learners. Written Language & Literacy, 17(1), 62–88. doi: 10.1075/wll.17.1.04got CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haenni Hoti, A. U., Heinzmann, S., Muller, M., Oliveria, M., Wicki, W., & Werlen, E. (2011). Introducing a second foreign language in Swiss primary schools: The effect of L2 listening and reading skills on L3 acquisition. International Journal of Multilingualism, 8(2), 98–116. doi: 10.1080/14790718.2010.527006 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hipfner-Boucher, K., Lam, K., & Chen, X. (2014). The effects of bilingual education on the English language and literacy outcomes of Chinese-speaking children. Written Language and Literacy, 17(1), 116–138. doi: 10.1075/wll.17.1.06hip CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoff, E. (2013). Interpreting the early language trajectories of children from low-SES and language minority homes: Implications for closing the achievement gap. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 4–14. doi: 10.1037/a0027238 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading & Writing, 2(2), 127–160. doi: 10.1007/BF00401799 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hwang, J. K., Mancilla-Martinez, J., McClain, J. B., Oh, M. H., & Flores, I. (2020). Spanish-speaking English learners’ English language and literacy skills: The predictive role of conceptually scored vocabulary. Applied Psycholinguistics, 41(1), 1–24. doi: 10.1017/S0142716419000365 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jean, M., & Geva, E. (2009). The development of vocabulary in English as a second language children and its role in predicting word recognition ability. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30(1), 153–185. doi: 10.1017/S0142716408090073 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kieffer, M. J. (2010a). Socioeconomic status, English proficiency and late-emerging reading difficulties. Educational Researcher, 39(6), 484–486. doi: 10.3102/0013189x10378400 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kieffer, M. J. (2010b). Converging trajectories: Reading growth in language minority learners and their classmates. American Educational Research Journal, 48(5), 1187–1225. doi: 10.3102/0002831211419490 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kieffer, M. J. (2012). Early Spanish and English language proficiency and later reading development among Spanish-speaking English language learners: Evidence from a nine year longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 33, 146–157. doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2012.02.003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korat, O., Klein, P., & Segal-Drori, O. (2007). Maternal mediation in book reading, home literacy environment and children’s emergent literacy: A comparison between two social groups. Reading & Writing, 20(4), 361–398. doi: 10.1007/s11145-006-9034-x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lesaux, N. K., & Kieffer, M. J. (2010). Exploring sources of reading comprehension difficulties among language minority learners and their classmates in early adolescence. American Educational Research Journal, 47(3), 596–632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Littell, R. C., Milliken, G. A., Stroup, W. W., & Wolfinger, R. D. (1996). SAS system for mixed models. Cary, NC: SAS Institute.Google Scholar
Mancilla-Martinez, J., Kieffer, M. J., Biancarosa, G., Chistodoulou, J. A., & Snow, C. E. (2011). Investigating English reading comprehension growth in adolescent language minority learners: Some insights from the simple view. Reading & Writing, 24(3), 339–354. doi: 10.1007/s11145-009-9215-5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakamoto, J., Lindsey, K. A., & Manis, F. R. (2008). A cross-linguistic investigation of English language learners’ reading comprehension in English and Spanish. Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(4), 351–371. doi: 10.1080/10888430802378526 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Padilla, P. (2021). Reading in Kapampangan, Filipino, and English: A look at multilingual children in an economically challenging Philippine community. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Wilfred Laurier University.Google Scholar
Paradis, J. (2011). Individual differences in child English second language acquisition: Comparing child-internal and child-external factors. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 1(3), 213–237. doi: 10.1075/lab.1.3.01par CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piper, B., Schroeder, L., & Trudell, B. (2016). Oral reading fluency and comprehension in Kenya: Reading acquisition in a multilingual environment. Journal of Research in Reading, 39(2), 133–152. doi: 10.1111/1467-9817.12052 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prevoo, M. J. L, Malda, M., Mesman, J., & van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (2016). Within- and cross language relations between oral language proficiency and school outcomes in bilingual children with an immigrant background: A meta-analytical study. Review of Educational Research, 86(1), 237–276. doi: 10.3102/0034654315584685 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Proctor, C. P., August, D., Carlo, M. S., & Snow, C. (2006). The intriguing role of Spanish vocabulary knowledge in predicting English reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 159–169. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.159 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramirez, G., Chen, X., & Pasquarella, A. (2013). Cross-linguistic transfer of morphological awareness in Spanish-speaking English learners: The facilitating effect of cognate knowledge. Topics in Language Disorders, 33(1), 73–92. doi: 10.1097/TLD.0b013e318280f55a CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanz, C. (2008). Predicting enhanced L3 learning in bilingual contexts: The role of biliteracy. In Perez-Vidal, C., Juan-Garau, M., & Bel, A. (Eds.), A portrait of the young in the new multilingual Spain (pp. 220–240). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Schoonen, R., van Gelderen, A., de Glopper, K., Hulstijn, J., Simis, A., Snellings, P., & Stevenson, M. (2002). Linguistic knowledge, metacognitive knowledge and retrieval speed in L1, L2 and EFL writing. In Randsdell, S. & Barbier, M.-L. (Eds.), New directions for research in L2 writing (pp. 101–122). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. doi: 10.1007/978-94-010-0363-6 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverman, R. D., Proctor, C. P., Harring, J. R., Hartranft, A. M., Doyle, B., & Zelinke, S. B. (2015). Language skills and reading comprehension in English monolingual and Spanish–English bilingual children in grades 2–5. Reading & Writing, 28, 1381–1405. doi: 10.1007/s11145-015-9575-y CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinclair, J., Jang, E. E., & Vincett, M. (2019). Investigating linguistically diverse adolescents’ literacy trajectories using latent transition modeling. Reading Research Quarterly, 54(1), 81–107. doi: 10.1002/rrq.220 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, J. D. (1998). Using SAS PROC MIXED to fit multilevel models, hierarchical models, and individual growth models. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Sciences, 23(4), 323–355. doi: 10.2307/1165280 Google Scholar
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195152968.001.0001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snow, C. E., Burns, M.S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Statistics Canada. (2016). 2016 Census topic: Language. Retrieved July 2, 2020, from http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/rt-td/lang-eng.cfm Google Scholar
Swanson, H. L., Rosston, K., Gerber, M., & Solari, E. (2008). Influence of oral language and phonological awareness on children’s bilingual reading. Journal of School Psychology, 46(4), 413–429. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2007.07.002 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thibault, J., & Matheson, I. A. (2020). The cross-linguistic reading strategies used by elementary students in French immersion as they engage in dual-language children’s books. Canadian Modern Language Review, 76(4), 375–394. doi: 10.3138/cmlr-2019-0071 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uccelli, P., Galloway, E. P., Barr, C., Meneses, A., & Dobbs, C. L. (2015). Beyond vocabulary: Exploring cross-disciplinary academic-language proficiency and its association with reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 50(3), 337–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uchikoshi, Y., & Marinova-Todd, S.H., (2019). Pushing the Limits: Dual Language Proficiency and Reading Development in the United States and Canada. In Grøver, V., Uccelli, P., Rowe, M. & Lieven, E. (Eds.), Learning through language: Towards an educationally informed theory of language learning (pp. 235–246). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valentino, R. A., & Reardon, S. F. (2014). Effectiveness of four instructional programs designed to serve English learners: Variation by ethnicity and initial English proficiency. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 37(4), 612–637. doi: 10.3102/0162373715573310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Gelderen, A., Schoonen, R., Gloper, K., Hulstijn, J., Snellings, P., Simis, A. & Stevenson, M. (2003). Roles of linguistic knowledge, metacognitive knowledge and processing speed in L3, L2, and L1 reading comprehension: A structural modeling approach. International Journal of Bilingualism, 7(1), 7–25. doi: 10.1177/13670069030070010201 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Steensel, R. (2006). Relations between socio-cultural factors, the home literacy environment and children’s literacy development in the first years of primary education. Journal of Research in Reading, 29(4), 367–382. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2006.00301.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vancouver School Board. (2019). Early French immersion: K to 7. Retrieved from https://www.vsb.bc.ca/Student_Learning/Elementary/French_Language/Early_French_Immersion_K-7/Pages/default.aspx Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (2007). Wechsler individual achievement test – (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.Google Scholar
Woodcock, R. W. (1991). Woodcock language proficiency battery-revised. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing.Google Scholar