Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T11:37:03.816Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Identifying and monitoring pain in farm animals: a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 December 2012

A. Prunier ,
L. Mounier ,
P. Le Neindre ,
C. Leterrier ,
P. Mormède ,
V. Paulmier ,
P. Prunet ,
C. Terlouw  and
R. Guatteo
A. Prunier*
Affiliation:
INRA, UMR1348 PEGASE, F-35590 Saint-Gilles, France
L. Mounier
Affiliation:
Gestion des élevages, VetAgro Sup Campus Vétérinaire de Lyon, 1 avenue Bourgelat, F-69280 Marcy l’étoile, France INRA, UMR1213 Herbivores, Equipe ACS, F-63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France
P. Le Neindre
Affiliation:
INRA, CODIR, F-75338 Paris, France
C. Leterrier
Affiliation:
INRA, UMR85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, F-37380 Nouzilly, France
P. Mormède
Affiliation:
INRA, UMR444 Génétique Cellulaire, F-31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
V. Paulmier
Affiliation:
INRA, UMR1213 Herbivores, Equipe ACS, F-63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France
P. Prunet
Affiliation:
INRA UR1037, Laboratoire de Physiologie et Génomique des Poissons, Campus de Beaulieu, F-35042 Rennes, France
C. Terlouw
Affiliation:
INRA, UMR1213 Herbivores, Equipe ACS, F-63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France
R. Guatteo
Affiliation:
Oniris, UMR1300, Bio-Agression, Epidémiologie et Analyse de Risque, F-44307 Nantes, France
*
†E-mail: Armelle.Prunier@rennes.inra.fr
Get access

Abstract

One important objective for animal welfare is to maintain animals free from pain, injury or disease. Therefore, detecting and evaluating the intensity of animal pain is crucial. As animals cannot directly communicate their feelings, it is necessary to identify sensitive and specific indicators that can be easily used. The aim of the present paper is to review relevant indicators to assess pain in several farm species. The term pain is used for mammals, birds and fish, even though the abilities of the various species to experience the emotional component of pain may be different. Numerous behavioural changes are associated with pain and many of them could be used on farms to assess the degree of pain being experienced by an animal. Pain, as a stressor, is associated with variations in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis as well as in the sympathetic and immune systems that can be used to identify the presence of pain rapidly after it started. However, most of these measures need sophisticated equipment for their assessment. Therefore, they are mainly adapted to experimental situations. Injuries and other lesional indicators give information on the sources of pain and are convenient to use in all types of situations. Histopathological analyses can identify sources of pain in experimental studies. When pronounced and/or long lasting, the pain-induced behavioural and physiological changes can decrease production performance. Some indicators are very specific and sensitive to pain, whereas others are more generally related to stressful situations. The latter can be used to indicate that animals are suffering from something, which may be pain. Overall, this literature review shows that several indicators exist to assess pain in mammals, a few in birds and very few in fish. Even if in some cases, a single indicator, usually a behavioural indicator, may be sufficient to detect pain, combining various types of indicators increases sensitivity and specificity of pain assessment. Research is needed to build and validate new indicators and to develop systems of pain assessment adapted to each type of situation and each species.

Keywords

painbehaviourhormonelesionperformance
Type
Behaviour, welfare and health
Information
animal , Volume 7 , Issue 6 , June 2013 , pp. 998 - 1010
Copyright
Copyright © The Animal Consortium 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abbott, JC, Dill, LM 1985. Patterns of aggressive attack in juvenile stellhead trout (Salmo-Gairdneri). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 42, 1702–1706.Google Scholar
Allain, V, Mirabito, L, Arnould, C, Colas, M, LeBouquin, S, Lupo, C, Michel, V 2009. Skin lesions in broiler chickens measured at the slaughterhouse: relationships between lesions and between their prevalence and rearing factors. British Poultry Science 50, 407–417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barton, BA, Iwama, GK 1991. Physiological changes in fish from stress in aquaculture with emphasis on the response and effects of corticosteroids. Annual Review of Fish Diseases 1, 3–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bicalho, RC, Vokey, F, Erb, HN, Guard, CL 2007. Visual locomotion scoring in the first seventy days in milk: impact on pregnancy and survival. Journal of Dairy Science 90, 4586–4591.Google Scholar
Bintz, J 1971. Between- and within-subject effect of shock intensity on avoidance in goldfish (Carassius auratus). Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 75, 92–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bizeray, D, Faure, JM, Leterrier, C 2004. Making broilers walk: what for and how. Productions Animales 17, 45–57.Google Scholar
Bonga, SEW 1997. The stress response in fish. Physiological Reviews 77, 591–625.Google Scholar
Borghetti, P, Saleri, R, Mocchegiani, E, Corradi, A, Martelli, P 2009. Infection, immunity and the neuroendocrine response. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 130, 141–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breward, J, Gentle, MJ 1985. Neuroma formation and abnormal afferent nerve discharges after partial beak amputation (beak trimming) in poultry. Experientia 41, 1132–1134.Google Scholar
Bright, A 2008. Vocalisations and acoustic parameters of flock noise from feather pecking and non-feather pecking laying flocks. British Poultry Science 49, 241–249.Google Scholar
Brown, JME, Edwards, SA, Smith, WJ, Thompson, E, Duncan, J 1996. Welfare and production implications of teeth clipping and iron injection of piglets in outdoor systems in Scotland. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 27, 95–105.Google Scholar
Capion, N, Thamsborg, SM, Enevoldsen, C 2009. Prevalence and severity of foot lesions in Danish Holstein heifers through first lactation. Veterinary Journal 182, 50–58.Google Scholar
Carroll, JA 2008. Bidirectional communication: growth and immunity in domestic livestock. Journal of Animal Science 86, E126–E137.Google Scholar
Carroll, JA, Berg, EL, Strauch, TA, Roberts, MP, Kattesh, HG 2006. Hormonal profiles, behavioral responses, and short-term growth performance after castration of pigs at three, six, nine, or twelve days of age. Journal of Animal Science 84, 1271–1278.Google Scholar
Cheng, H 2006. Morphopathological changes and pain in beak trimmed laying hens. Worlds Poultry Science Journal 62, 41–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, RDH, King, BD, Thomas, LR, Janzen, ED 1990. Efficacy and stress of chemical versus surgical castration of cattle. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 70, 1063–1072.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collias, NE 1987. The vocal repertoire of the Red Junglefowl: a spectrographic classification and the code of communication. The Condor 89, 510–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Courboulay, V, Hémonic, A, Gadonna, M, Prunier, A 2010. Castration avec anesthésie locale ou traitement anti-inflammatoire: quel impact sur la douleur des porcelets et quelles conséquences sur le travail en élevage?. In 42. Journées de la Recherche Porcine, Paris (FRA), pp. 27–33.Google Scholar
Davis, GS, Anderson, KE, Jones, DR 2004. The effects of different beak trimming techniques on plasma corticosterone and performance criteria in single comb White Leghorn hens. Poultry Science 83, 1624–1628.Google Scholar
Done, SH, Guise, J, Chennells, D 2003. Tail biting and tail docking in pigs. Proceedings of the Pig Veterinary Society Meeting, Burleigh Court, Loughborough, UK, 14–15 November 2002, pp. 136–154.Google Scholar
Duncan, IJ, Beatty, ER, Hocking, PM, Duff, SR 1991. Assessment of pain associated with degenerative hip disorders in adult male turkeys. Research in Veterinary Science 50, 200–203.Google Scholar
Dunlop, R, Millsopp, S, Laming, P 2006. Avoidance learning in goldfish (Carassius auratus) and trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and implications for pain perception. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 97, 255–271.Google Scholar
Earley, B, Crowe, MA 2002. Effects of ketoprofen alone or in combination with local anesthesia during the castration of bull calves on plasma cortisol, immunological, and inflammatory responses. Journal of Animal Science 80, 1044–1052.Google Scholar
Ehrensing, RH, Michell, GF, Kastin, AJ 1982. Similar antagonism of morphine analgesia by MIF-1 and naloxone in Carassius auratus. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 17, 757–761.Google Scholar
Eicher, SD, Morrow-Tesch, JL, Albright, JL, Dailey, JW, Young, CR, Stanker, LH 2000. Tail-docking influences on behavioral, immunological, and endocrine responses in dairy heifers. Journal of Dairy Science 83, 1456–1462.Google Scholar
Elsasser, TH, Klasing, KC, Filipov, N, Thompson, F 2000. The metabolic consequences of stress: targets for stress and priorities of nutrient use. In The biology of animal stress. Basic principles and implications for animal welfare (ed. GP Moberg and JA Mench), pp. 77–110. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evrard, HC, Balthazart, J 2002. The assessment of nociceptive and non-nociceptive skin sensitivity in the Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica). Journal of Neuroscience Methods 116, 135–146.Google Scholar
Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) 1992. Updates the five freedoms. Veterinary records 17.Google Scholar
Fernandez, X, Levasseur, P, Ecolan, P, Wittmann, W 1995. Effect of epinephrine administration on glycogen-metabolism in red and white muscle of anesthetized pigs (Sus Scrofa domesticus). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 68, 231–239.Google Scholar
Fisher, AD, Crowe, MA, delaVarga, MEA, Enright, WJ 1996. Effect of castration method and the provision of local anesthesia on plasma cortisol, scrotal circumference, growth, and feed intake of bull calves. Journal of Animal Science 74, 2336–2343.Google Scholar
Flower, FC, Weary, DM 2006. Effect of hoof pathologies on subjective assessments of dairy cow gait. Journal of Dairy Science 89, 139–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fourichon, C, Seegers, H, Bareille, N, Beaudeau, F 1999. Effects of disease on milk production in the dairy cow: a review. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 41, 1–35.Google Scholar
Fraser, D, Thompson, BK 1991. Armed sibling rivalry among suckling piglets. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 29, 9–15.Google Scholar
Gallois, M, Cozler, YL, Prunier, A 2005. Influence of tooth resection in piglets on welfare and performance. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 69, 13–23.Google Scholar
Gentle, MJ 1974. Changes in habituation of the EEG to water deprivation and crop loading in Gallus domesticus. Physiology & Behavior 13, 15–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gentle, MJ 2011. Pain issues in poultry. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 135, 252–258.Google Scholar
Gentle, MJ, Hunder, LN 1991. Physiological and behavioural responses associated with feather removal in Gallus gallus var domesticus. Research in Veterinary Science 50, 95–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gentle, MJ, Corr, SA 1995. Endogenous analgesia in the chicken. Neuroscience Letters 201, 211–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gentle, MJ, Jones, RB, Woolley, SC 1989. Physiological changes during tonic immobility in Gallus gallus var domesticus. Physiology & Behavior 46, 843–847.Google Scholar
Gentle, MJ, Thorp, BH, Hughes, BO 1995. Anatomical consequences of partial beak amputation (beak trimming) in turkeys. Research in Veterinary Science 58, 158–162.Google Scholar
Gibson, TJ, Johnson, CB, Stafford, KJ, Mitchinson, SL, Mellor, DJ 2007. Validation of the acute electroencephalographic responses of calves to noxious stimulus with scoop dehorning. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 55, 152–157.Google Scholar
Gillman, CE, KilBride, AL, Ossent, P, Green, LE 2009. A cross-sectional study of the prevalence of foot lesions in post-weaning pigs and risks associated with floor type on commercial farms in England. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 91, 146–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glatz, PC 1987. Effects of beak trimming and restraint on heart rate, food intake, body weight and egg production in hens. British Poultry Science 28, 601–611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glatz, PC 2000. Beak trimming methods – review. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 13, 1619–1637.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glatz, PC, Lunam, CA 1994. Production and heart-rate responses of chickens beak-trimmed at hatch or at 10 or 42 days of age. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 34, 443–447.Google Scholar
Graham, MJ, Kent, JE, Molony, V 1997. Effects of four analgesic treatments on the behavioural and cortisol responses of 3-week-old lambs to tail docking. Veterinary Journal 153, 87–97.Google Scholar
Grant, C 2004. Behavioural responses of lambs to common painful husbandry procedures. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 87, 255–273.Google Scholar
Guatteo, R, Levionnois, O, Fournier, D, Guémené, D, Latouche, K, Leterrier, C, Mormède, P, Prunier, A, Servière, J, Terlouw, C, Le Neindre, P 2012. Minimising pain in farm animals: the 3S approach – ‘suppress, substitute, soothe’. Animal 6, 1261–1274.Google Scholar
Haga, HA, Ranheim, B 2005. Castration of piglets: the analgesic effects of intratesticular and intrafunicular lidocaine injection. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 32, 1–9.Google Scholar
Hay, M, Vulin, A, Génin, S, Sales, P, Prunier, A 2003. Assessment of pain induced by castration in piglets: behavioral and physiological responses over the subsequent 5 days. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 82, 201–218.Google Scholar
Hay, M, Rue, J, Sansac, C, Brunel, G, Prunier, A 2004. Long-term detrimental effects of tooth clipping or grinding in piglets: a histological approach. Animal Welfare 13, 23–32.Google Scholar
Herr, K, Bjoro, K, Decker, S 2006. Tools for assessment of pain in nonverbal older adults with dementia: a state-of-the-science review. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 31, 170–192.Google Scholar
Herskin, MS, Muller, R, Schrader, L, Ladewig, J 2003. A laser-based method to measure thermal nociception in dairy cows: short-term repeatability and effects of power output and skin condition. Journal of Animal Science 81, 945–954.Google Scholar
Hocking, PM, Robertson, GW, Gentle, MJ 2001. Effects of anti-inflammatory steroid drugs on pain coping behaviours in a model of articular pain in the domestic fowl. Research in Veterinary Science 71, 161–166.Google Scholar
Hocking, PM, Gentle, MJ, Bernard, R, Dunn, LN 1997. Evaluation of a protocol for determining the effectiveness of pretreatment with local analgesics for reducing experimentally induced articular pain in domestic fowl. Research in Veterinary Science 63, 263–267.Google Scholar
Holton, L, Reid, J, Scott, EM, Pawson, P, Nolan, A 2001. Development of a behaviour-based scale to measure acute pain in dogs. Veterinary Record 148, 525–531.Google Scholar
Hutter, S, Heinritzi, K, Reich, E, Ehret, W 1994. Efficacité de différentes méthodes de résection des dents chez le porcelet non sevré. Revue de Médecine Vétérinaire 145, 205–213.Google Scholar
Jarvis, S, McLean, KA, Chirnside, J, Deans, LA, Calvert, SK, Molony, V, Lawrence, AB 1997. Opioid-mediated changes in nociceptive threshold during pregnancy and parturition in the sow. Pain 72, 153–159.Google Scholar
Kestin, SC, Knowles, TG, Tinch, AE, Gregory, NG 1992. Prevalence of leg weakness in broiler chickens and its relationship with genotype. Veterinary Record 131, 190–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kielly, J, Dewey, CE, Cochran, M 1999. Castration at 3 days of age temporarily slows growth of pigs. Swine Health and Production 7, 151–153.Google Scholar
Lamont, LA, Tranquilli, WJ, Grimm, KA 2000. Physiology of pain. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Small Animal Practice 30, 703–728.Google Scholar
Lay, DC, Friend, TH, Bowers, CL, Grissom, KK, Jenkins, OC 1992a. A comparative physiological and behavioral study of freeze and hot-iron branding using dairy cows. Journal of Animal Science 70, 1121–1125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lay, DC, Friend, TH, Randel, RD, Bowers, CL, Grissom, KK, Jenkins, OC 1992b. Behavioral and physiological effects of freeze or hot-iron branding on crossbred cattle. Journal of Animal Science 70, 330–336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lay, D, Friend, T, Grissom, K, Bowers, C, Mal, M 1992c. Effects of freeze or hot-iron branding of Angus calves on some physiological and behavioral indicators of stress. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 33, 137–147.Google Scholar
Le Neindre, P, Guattéo, R, Guémené, D, Guichet, JL, Latouche, K, Leterrier, C, Levionnois, O, Mormède, P, Prunier, A, Serrie, A, Serviere, J 2009. Animal pain identifying, understanding and minimising pain in farm animals. Multidisciplinary scientific assessment. Summary of the Expert Report, INRA, France, 98pp. Retrieved October 18, 2012, from http://www.international.inra.fr/the_institute/scientific_expertise/expert_reports/pain_in_farm_animalsGoogle Scholar
Leach, KA, Dippel, S, Huber, J, March, S, Winckler, C, Whay, HR 2009. Assessing lameness in cows kept in tie-stalls. Journal of Dairy Science 92, 1567–1574.Google Scholar
Lester, SJ, Mellor, DJ, Ward, RN, Holmes, RJ 1991. Cortisol responses of young lambs to castration and tailing using different methods. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 39, 134–138.Google Scholar
Lester, SJ, Mellor, DJ, Holmes, RJ, Ward, RN, Stafford, KJ 1996. Behavioural and cortisol responses of lambs to castration and tailing using different methods. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 44, 45–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leterrier, C, Nys, Y 1992. Clinical and anatomical differences in varus and valgus deformities of chick limbs suggest different etiopathogenesis. Avian Pathology 21, 429–442.Google Scholar
Lewin-Kowalik, J, Marcol, W, Kotulska, K, Mandera, M, Klimczak, A 2006. Prevention and management of painful neuroma. Neurologia Medico-Chirurgica 46, 62–67.Google Scholar
Llamas Moya, SL, Boyle, LA, Lynch, PB, Arkins, S 2008. Effect of surgical castration on the behavioural and acute phase responses of 5-day-old piglets. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 111, 133–145.Google Scholar
Logue, DN, Offer, JE, Hyslop, JJ 1994. Relationship of diet, hoof type and locomotion score with lesions of the sole and white line in dairy-cattle. Animal Production 59, 173–181.Google Scholar
Manteuffel, G, Puppe, B, Schon, PC 2004. Vocalization of farm animals as a measure of welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 88, 163–182.Google Scholar
Marchant-Forde, JN, Lay, DC Jr, McMunn, KA, Cheng, HW, Pajor, EA, Marchant-Forde, RM 2009. Postnatal piglet husbandry practices and well-being: the effects of alternative techniques delivered separately. Journal of Animal Science 87, 1479–1492.Google Scholar
Marx, G, Horn, T, Thielebein, J, Knubel, B, Von Borell, E 2003. Analysis of pain-related vocalization in young pigs. Journal of Sound and Vibration 266, 687–698.Google Scholar
Matteri, RL, Crarroll, JA, Dyer, CJ 2000. Neuroendocrine responses to stress. In The biology of animal stress: basic principles and implications for animal welfare (ed. GP Moberg and JA Mench), pp. 1–21. CABI Publisher, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
McCarthy, RN, Jeffcott, LB, Clarke, IJ 1993. Preliminary studies on the use of plasma beta-endorphin in horses as an indicator of stress and pain. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 13, 216–219.Google Scholar
McGlone, JJ, Hellman, JM 1988. Local and general anesthetic effects on behavior and performance of two- and seven-week-old castrated and uncastrated piglets. Journal of Animal Science 66, 3049–3058.Google Scholar
McGlone, JJ, Nicholson, RI, Hellman, JM, Herzog, DN 1993. The development of pain in young pigs associated with castration and attempts to prevent castration-induced behavioral changes. Journal of Animal Science 71, 1441–1446.Google Scholar
Meagher, RK 2009. Observer ratings: validity and value as a tool for animal welfare research. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 119, 1–14.Google Scholar
Melendez, P, Bartolome, J, Archbald, LF, Donovan, A 2003. The association between lameness, ovarian cysts and fertility in lactating dairy cows. Theriogenology 59, 927–937.Google Scholar
Mellor, DJ, Murray, L 1989. Changes in the cortisol responses of lambs to tail docking, castration and ACTH injection during the first seven days after birth. Research in Veterinary Science 46, 392–395.Google Scholar
Mellor, DJ, Cook, CJ, Stafford, KJ 2000. Quantifying some responses to pain as a stressor. In The biology of animal stress: basic principles and implications for welfare (ed. GP Moberg and JA Mench), pp. 171–198. CAB International, Wallingford.Google Scholar
Mellor, DJ, Stafford, KJ, Todd, SE, Lowe, TE, Gregory, NG, Bruce, RA, Ward, RN 2002. A comparison of catecholamine and cortisol responses of young lambs and calves to painful husbandry procedures. Australian Veterinary Journal 80, 228–233.Google Scholar
Melzack, R, Wall, PD 1965. Pain mechanisms – a new theory. Science 150, 971–971.Google Scholar
Merlot, E, Mounier, AM, Prunier, A 2011. Endocrine response of gilts to various common stressors: a comparison of indicators and methods of analysis. Physiology & Behavior 102, 259–265.Google Scholar
Mettam, JJ, Oulton, LJ, McCrohan, CR, Sneddon, LU 2011. The efficacy of three types of analgesic drugs in reducing pain in the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 133, 265–274.Google Scholar
Moberg, GP 2000. Biological response to stress: implications for animal welfare. In The biology of animal stress: basic principles and implications for animal welfare (ed. GP Moberg and JA Mench), pp. 1–21. CABI Publisher, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Molony, V, Kent, JE 1997. Assessment of acute pain in farm animals using behavioral and physiological measurements. Journal of Animal Science 75, 266–272.Google Scholar
Molony, V, Kent, JE, Robertson, IS 1993. Behavioural responses of lambs of three ages in the first three hours after three methods of castration and tail docking. Research in Veterinary Science 55, 236–245.Google Scholar
Molony, V, Kent, JE, Robertson, IS 1995. Assessment of acute and chronic pain after different methods of castration of calves. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 46, 33–48.Google Scholar
Molony, V, Kent, JE, McKendrick, IJ 2002. Validation of a method for assessment of an acute pain in lambs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 76, 215–238.Google Scholar
Molony, V, Kent, JE, Hosie, BD, Graham, MJ 1997. Reduction in pain suffered by lambs at castration. Veterinary Journal 153, 205–213.Google Scholar
Morisse, JP, Cotte, JP, Huonnic, D 1995. Effect of dehorning on behaviour and plasma cortisol responses in young calves. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 43, 239–247.Google Scholar
Morton, D, Griffiths, P 1985. Guidelines on the recognition of pain, distress and discomfort in experimental animals and an hypothesis for assessment. Veterinary Record 116, 431–436.Google Scholar
Mouttotou, N, Hatchell, FM, Green, LE 1999. Foot lesions in finishing pigs and their associations with the type of floor. Veterinary Record 144, 629–632.Google Scholar
Noonan, GJ, Rand, JS, Priest, J, Ainscow, J, Blackshaw, JK 1994. Behavioural observations of piglets undergoing tail docking, teeth clipping and ear notching. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 39, 203–213.Google Scholar
Nyborg, PY, Srig, A, Lykkegaard, K, Svendsen, O 2000. Nociception after castration of juvenile pigs determined by quantitative estimation of c-Fos expressing neurons in the spinal cord dorsal horn. Dansk Veterinartidsskrift 83, 16–17.Google Scholar
O'Callaghan, KA, Cripps, PJ, Downham, DY, Murray, RD 2003. Subjective and objective assessment of pain and discomfort due to lameness in dairy cattle. Animal Welfare 12, 605–610.Google Scholar
Paull, DR, Lee, C, Colditz, IG, Fisher, AD 2009. Effects of a topical anaesthetic formulation and systemic carprofen, given singly or in combination, on the cortisol and behavioural responses of Merino lambs to castration. Australian Veterinary Journal 87, 230–237.Google Scholar
Persson, Y, Soderquist, L, Ekman, S 2007. Joint disorder: a contributory cause to reproductive failure in beef bulls? Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 49, 31.Google Scholar
Prunier, A 2002. Evaluation et prévention de la douleur induite par les interventions de convenance chez le porcelet. In Journée d’étude bien-être des porcs et des volailles, Gembloux (BEL), 2002/10/16.Google Scholar
Prunier, A, Hay, M, Servrière, J 2002. Evaluation et prévention de la douleur induite par les interventions de convenance chez le porcelet. Journées de la Recherche Porcine 34, 257–268.Google Scholar
Prunier, A, Mounier, AM, Hay, M 2005. Effects of castration, tooth resection, or tail docking on plasma metabolites and stress hormones in young pigs. Journal of Animal Science 83, 216–222.Google Scholar
Prunier, A, Bonneau, M, Von Borell, EH, Cinotti, S, Gunn, M, Frediksen, B, Giersing, M, Morton, DB, Tuyttens, FAM, Velarde, A 2006. A review of the welfare consequences of surgical castration in piglets and the evaluation of non-surgical methods. Animal Welfare 15, 277–289.Google Scholar
Puppe, B, Schon, PC, Tuchscherer, A, Manteuffel, G 2005. Castration-induced vocalisation in domestic piglets, Sus scrofa: complex and specific alterations of the vocal quality. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 95, 67–78.Google Scholar
Reilly, SC, Quinn, JP, Cossins, AR, Sneddon, LU 2008. Behavioural analysis of a nociceptive event in fish: comparisons between three species demonstrate specific responses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 114, 248–259.Google Scholar
Rietmann, TR, Stauffacher, M, Bernasconi, P, Auer, JA, Weishaupt, MA 2004. The association between heart rate, heart rate variability, endocrine and behavioural pain measures in horses suffering from laminitis. Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series A – Physiology Pathology Clinical Medicine 51, 218–225.Google Scholar
Ren, K, Torres, R 2009. Role of interleukin-1β during pain and inflammation. Brain Research Reviews 60, 57–64.Google Scholar
Robert, S, Thompson, BK, Fraser, D 1995. Selective tooth clipping in the management of low-birth weight piglets. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 75, 285–289.Google Scholar
Robertson, IS, Kent, JE, Molony, V 1994. Effect of different methods of castration on behavior and plasma cortisol in calves of three ages. Research in Veterinary Science 56, 8–17.Google Scholar
Roozen, AWN, Tsuma, VT, Magnusson, U 1995. Effects of short-term restraint on plasma-concentrations of catecholamines, beta-endorphin, and cortisol in gilts. American Journal of Veterinary Research 56, 1225–1227.Google Scholar
Rushen, J, Pombourcq, E, Passillé, AMD 2007. Validation of two measures of lameness in dairy cows. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 106, 173–177.Google Scholar
Schwartzkopf-Genswein, KS, Stookey, JM, Welford, R 1997. Behavior of cattle during hot-iron and freeze branding and the effects of subsequent handling ease. Journal of Animal Science 75, 2064–2072.Google Scholar
Schwartzkopf-Genswein, KS, Stookey, JM, Crowe, TG, Genswein, BM 1998. Comparison of image analysis, exertion force, and behavior measurements for use in the assessment of beef cattle responses to hot-iron and freeze branding. Journal of Animal Science 76, 972–979.Google Scholar
Shutt, DA, Fell, LR, Connell, R, Bell, AK, Wallace, CA, Smith, AI 1987. Stress-induced changes in plasma concentrations of immunoreactive beta-endorphin and cortisol in response to routine surgical procedures in lambs. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences 40, 97–103.Google Scholar
Simonsen, HB, Klinken, L, Bindseil, E 1991. Histopathology of intact and docked pigtails. British Veterinary Journal 147, 407–412.Google Scholar
Sneddon, LU 2003. The evidence for pain in fish: the use of morphine as an analgesic. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 83, 153–162.Google Scholar
Stafford, KJ, Mellor, DJ 2005. Dehorning and disbudding distress and its alleviation in calves. The Veterinary Journal 169, 337–349.Google Scholar
Stafford, KJ, Mellor, DJ, Todd, SE, Bruce, RA, Ward, RN 2002. Effects of local anaesthesia or local anaesthesia plus a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug on the acute cortisol response of calves to five different methods of castration. Research in Veterinary Science 73, 61–70.Google Scholar
Stewart, M, Stafford, KJ, Dowling, SK, Schaefer, AL, Webster, JR 2008. Eye temperature and heart rate variability of calves disbudded with or without local anaesthetic. Physiology & Behavior 93, 789–797.Google Scholar
Stewart, M, Verkerk, GA, Stafford, KJ, Schaefer, AL, Webster, JR 2010. Noninvasive assessment of autonomic activity for evaluation of pain in calves, using surgical castration as a model. Journal of Dairy Science 93, 3602–3609.Google Scholar
Sutherland, MA, Davis, BL, Brooks, TA, McGlone, JJ 2010. Physiology and behavior of pigs before and after castration: effects of two topical anesthetics. Animal 4, 2071–2079.Google Scholar
Sylvester, SP, Mellor, DJ, Stafford, KJ, Bruce, RA, Ward, RN 1998. Acute cortisol responses of calves to scoop dehorning using local anaesthesia and/or cautery of the wound. Australian Veterinary Journal 76, 118–122.Google Scholar
Thornton, PD, Waterman-Pearson, AE 1999. Quantification of the pain and distress responses to castration in young lambs. Research in Veterinary Science 66, 107–118.Google Scholar
Tilbrook, AJ, Turner, AI, Clarke, IJ 2000. Effects of stress on reproduction in non-rodent mammals: the role of glucocorticoids and sex differences. Reviews of Reproduction 5, 105–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ting, STL, Earley, B, Hughes, JML, Crowe, MA 2003. Effect of ketoprofen, lidocaine local anesthesia, and combined xylazine and lidocaine caudal epidural anesthesia during castration of beef cattle on stress responses, immunity, growth, and behavior. Journal of Animal Science 81, 1281–1293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torrey, S, Devillers, N, Lessard, M, Farmer, C, Widowski, T 2009. Effect of age on the behavioral and physiological responses of piglets to tail docking and ear notching. Journal of Animal Science 87, 1778–1786.Google Scholar
Turnbull, AV, Rivier, CL 1999. Regulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis by cytokines: actions and mechanisms of action. Physiological Reviews 79, 1–71.Google Scholar
Turnbull, JF, Adams, CE, Richards, RH, Robertson, DA 1998. Attack site and resultant damage during aggressive encounters in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) parr. Aquaculture 159, 345–353.Google Scholar
Valros, A, Ahlstrom, S, Rintala, H, Hakkinen, T, Saloniemi, H 2004. The prevalence of tail damage in slaughter pigs in Finland and associations to carcass condemnations. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section A – Animal Science 54, 213–219.Google Scholar
Veissier, I, Rushen, J, Colwell, D, De Passille, AM 2000. A laser-based method for measuring the pain sensitivity of cattle. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 66, 289–304.Google Scholar
Vestergaard, KS, Sanotra, GS 1999. Relationships between leg disorders and changes in the behaviour of broiler chickens. Veterinary Record 144, 205–209.Google Scholar
Von Borell, E, Langbein, J, Despres, G, Hansen, S, Leterrier, C, Marchant-Forde, J, Marchant-Forde, R, Minero, M, Mohr, E, Prunier, A, Valance, D, Veissier, I 2007a. Heart rate variability as a measure of autonomic regulation of cardiac activity for assessing stress and welfare in farm animals – a review. Physiology & Behavior 92, 293–316.Google Scholar
Von Borell, E, Dobson, H, Prunier, A 2007b. Stress, behaviour and reproductive performance in female cattle and pigs. Hormones and Behavior 52, 130–138.Google Scholar
Watts, JM, Stookey, JM 1999. Effects of restraint and branding on rates and acoustic parameters of vocalization in beef cattle. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 62, 125–135.Google Scholar
Watts, JM, Stookey, JM 2000. Vocal behaviour in cattle: the animal's commentary on its biological processes and welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 67, 15–33.Google Scholar
Weary, DM, Braithwaite, LA, Fraser, D 1998. Vocal response to pain in piglets. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 56, 161–172.Google Scholar
Weeks, CA, Davies, HC, Hunt, P 1997. Effect of leg weakness on feeding behaviour of broilers. BSAS Occasional Publication 20, 124–125.Google Scholar
Weeks, CA, Danbury, TD, Davies, HC, Hunt, P, Kestin, SC 2000. The behaviour of chickens and its modification by lameness. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 67, 111–125.Google Scholar
Welsh, EM, Gettinby, G, Nolan, AM 1993. Comparison of a visual analogue scale and a numerical rating scale for assessment of lameness, using sheep as a model. American Journal of Veterinary Research 54, 976–983.Google Scholar
White, RG, Deshazer, JA, Tressler, CJ, Borcher, GM, Davey, S, Waninge, A, Parkhurst, AM, Milanuk, MJ, Clemens, ET 1995. Vocalization and physiological response of pigs during castration with or without a local anesthetic. Journal of Animal Science 73, 381–386.Google Scholar
Widowski, TM, Cottrell, T, Dewey, CE, Friendship, RM 2003. Observations of piglet-directed behavior patterns and skin lesions in eleven commercial swine herds. Journal of Swine Health and Production 11, 181–185.Google Scholar
Wolff, A, Vanduynhoven, E, van Kleef, M, Huygen, F, Pope, JE, Mekhail, N 2011. Phantom pain. Pain Practice 11, 403–413.Google Scholar
Wylie, LM, Gentle, MJ 1998. Feeding-induced tonic pain suppression in the chicken: reversal by naloxone. Physiology and Behavior 64, 27–30.Google Scholar