¹ See, e.g., Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co., 133 S.Ct. 1659, 1670 (2013) (Breyer, J., concurring); Morrison v. Nat’l Austl. Bank Ltd., 561 U.S. 247, 273 (2010) (Breyer, J., concurring in part); Medellín v. Texas, 552 U.S. 491, 538 (2008) (Breyer, J., dissenting); Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain, 542 U.S. 692, 760 (2004) (Breyer, J., concurring in part); F. Hoffman-La-Roche Ltd. v. Empagran S.A., 542 U.S. 155 (2004) (writing for the Court).

² See Stephen Breyer, Active Liberty: Interpreting our Democratic Constitution (2006); Stephen Breyer, Making our Democracy Work: A Judge’s View (2010).

³ See United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 U.S. 304, 319 (1936). Recently, in Zivotofsky v. Kerry, 135 S.Ct. 2076, 2090 (2015), the Supreme Court distanced itself from some of the dicta in Curtiss-Wright.

⁴ See Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214, 218–19 (1944).

⁵ See Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (Steel Seizure), 343 U.S. 579 (1952).

⁶ Empagran, 542 U.S. 155.

⁷ Intel Corp. v. Advanced Micro Devices, Inc., 542 U.S. 241 (2004).

⁸ Morrison v. Nat’l Austl. Bank Ltd, 561 U.S. 247 (2010).

⁹ Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 133 S.Ct. 1351 (2013).

¹⁰ Empagran, 542 U.S. at 164.

¹¹ Filartiga v. Penña-Irala, 630 F.2d 876 (2d Cir. 1980).

¹² Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain, 542 U.S. 692 (2004).

¹³ Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co., 133 S.Ct. 1659 (2013).

¹⁴ Id. at 1669.

¹⁵ Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction, opened for signature Oct. 25, 1980, TIAS 11,670, 1343 UNTS 98.

¹⁶ See Abbott v. Abbott, 560 U.S. 1 (2010).

¹⁷ See Lozano v. Montoya Alvarez, 134 S.Ct. 1224 (2014).

¹⁸ BG Group PLC v. Republic of Argentina, 134 S.Ct. 1198 (2014).

¹⁹ See NRDC v. EPA 464 F.3d1, 9 (D.C. Cir. 2006) (discussing Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, Sept. 16, 1987, S. Treaty Doc. No. 100-10 (1987), 1522 UNTS 3, 26 ILM 1550 (1987)).

²⁰ Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, Art. 36, Apr. 24, 1963, 21 UST 77, 596 UNTS 261.

²¹ See Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon, 548 U.S. 331, 353 (2006) (quoting Breard v. Greene, 523 U.S. 371, 375 (1998)).

²² Medellín v. Texas, 552 U.S. 491, 508–10 (2008) (quoting UN Charter Art. 94(1)).

²³ See Bond v. United States, 134 S.Ct. 2077 (2014) (discussing ratification of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction, Jan. 13, 1993, S. Treaty Doc. No. 103-21 (1993), 1974 UNTS 45, 32 ILM 800 (1993)).

²⁴ Missouri v. Holland, 252 U.S. 416 (1920).

²⁵ See Bond, 134 S.Ct. at 2091; see also Curtis A. Bradley, Bond, Clear Statement Requirements, and Political Process, AJIL Unbound (June 3, 2014), at https://www.asil.org/blogs/bond-clear-statement-requirements-and-political-process.

²⁶ For an effort to prompt greater dialogue among scholars about comparative foreign relations law, see Courts, Treaties, Custom and the Use of Force, Duke University-Geneva Conference on Comparative Foreign Relations Law (July 10 –11, 2015), at https://law.duke.edu/news/duke-university-geneva-conference-comparative-foreign-relations-law.

²⁷ Compare Medellín, 552 U.S. at 550-51 (Breyer J., dissenting), with id. at 514–15 (majority opinion) (rejecting the dissent’s proposed approach on the ground that it is too indeterminate and ad hoc).

²⁸ See Bradley, Curtis A., Foreign Relations Law and the Purported Shift Away from “Exceptionalism,” 128 Harv. L. Rev. F. 294, 298–99 (2014)Google Scholar.

²⁹ Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co., 133 S. Ct. 1659, 1669 (2013).

³⁰ Id. (emphasis added).

³¹ See id. at 1674 (Breyer, J., concurring) (emphasis added).

³² Id. at 1671.

³³ Although the lower courts have differed to some extent in their interpretation of the “touch and concern” test from Kiobel, no court so far has held that the mere U.S. residence of a defendant is sufficient to meet that test.