A case study of the nopal-vegetable agroecosystem in metropolitan Mexico City was conducted to evaluate the crop's economic productivity and sustainability using economic, social, and environmental indicators. Economic indicators were based on a gross margin analysis, commercialization strategies, and provision of employment. Social indicators were education level, family size, origin of laborers, plot size providing a measure of equity, and social self-organization. Environmental indicators were soil nutrient content and fertilizer application, technological management, and crop and natural biodiversity. Information on relevant social, technological, and economic elements was obtained through structured interviews with 100 producers of the city's nopalproducing zone of Milpa Alta in the hills southeast of Mexico City. Analysis of soil samples from cropped fields at three different depths was conducted, along with a study of nopal-associated weed species used by the community. Net income per ha was equivalent to 4 minimum wages. Estimated scores of 89, 74, and 64 (on a scale of 0 to 100) were obtained for social, economic, and environmental sustainability indicators, respectfully, for this unique cropping system. Discussion focuses on trade-offs between indicators, the cost of achieving sustainability in the metropolitan zone of Mexico City, and appropriate policy responses.

The bison industry is relatively new to North Dakota where in 1998 an estimated 23,000 bison were raised in 47 of its 53 counties. The purpose of this study was to estimate the economic contribution of the bison industry to the state's economy in 1998. The bison industry, as defined here, is the production and processing of bison and the related revenues and expenditures generated from those activities that occurred within the state. With the construction and operation of a bison processing plant in North Dakota, this industry has undergone rapid expansion within the past 10 years. A survey of North Dakota bison producers and processors was conducted to provide estimates of direct impacts of the bison industry within the state. Secondary economic impacts were determined using the North Dakota Input-Output Model. The direct impact of production and processing of bison was estimated at $23 million. This generated an additional $47 million in secondary impacts within the state. The North Dakota bison industry supported a total of 757 secondary full-time equivalent (FTE) jobs. Total economic activity generated within the state was estimated at $70 million, including $27 million in personal income and nearly $18 million in retail sales. In addition, the bison industry generated $4 million in tax revenues, including property, personal income, sales and use, and corporate income taxes. The direct impact of bison production in 1998 ranked fourth in North Dakota's livestock industry: below cattle and calves, dairy products, and swine, but above turkeys and sheep. If the bison industry maintains its present growth rate, it will be larger than the North Dakota swine industry within 3 years, and sooner if the swine industry continues to decline as it has since 1995. The average direct impact generated for each bison in the state was $1,000. Total economic activity generated per bison was $3,100 (includes direct and secondary impacts from production and processing). For every 30 bison an additional secondary FTE job was supported.

Demand-driven agricultural production is unsustainable in Nepal since it is destroying the land base through soil erosion. The forests are also degrading from excessive fodder lopping (excising branches with leaf material) to feed farm animals. This study suggests an alternative for agricultural production, which minimizes environmental problems without impairing the present economic interests of the farmers. The study was conducted in the low-income, food-deficient, environmentally fragile hill district of Dhading in Nepal. A lexicographic goal-programming model was employed to generate an alternative plan that minimizes the environmental impacts relating to soil erosion, cattle grazing, forest fodder lopping, and use of inorganic fertilizers, and pesticides. Food-grain production, milk production, and returns to fixed farm resources are maintained at least at existing levels in the alternative plan. For delineating relationships between farm production and environmental problems, production of these commodities is hypothetically targeted at successively higher levels. The results indicate that the levels of environmental problems, except those from use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers, are considerably reduced in the alternative farm production system. The alternative crop plan proposes the total exclusion of corn and oilseed crops and a marked decrease in the area under main season paddy rice. Instead, the areas under early paddy, upland paddy, wheat, pulses, and fodder crops would increase. The livestock plan suggests a decrease in the number of bullocks required, due to modification of the crop plan and sharing of bullocks among neighboring farmers. Replacement of cows by buffaloes for milk production is also proposed. Increasing food-grain production is more damaging to the fragile hill ecosystem than an equivalent increase in milk production.

Construction of small water-harvesting structures (WHS) across seasonal streams, in the vicinity of cultivated areas, has proved to be a viable technique of water harvesting in the Shiwalik foothills of northern India. This paper reports on the performance and impact of one such structure in this area. Sufficient rainwater was available for harvesting because 86 ± 5.4% of monsoon rainstorms were runoff producing, resulting in collection of 29 ± 5% of the total monsoon rainfall. Out of this harvested water around 62% was available for irrigation at the start of the Rabi season (i.e., the dry season starting around 1 November). With time the water losses from the WHS declined from 66% in the first year of construction (1985) to 18% in 1996, because of sealing of soil pores from siltation of the reservoir bed. The life of the WHS was estimated to be 65 years at the observed average siltation rate of 47 Mg/ha/year. After construction of the WHS, the area under cultivation increased from 17 ha to 20 ha and the cropping intensity by 170 to 200%. The Rabi crop yields were approximately doubled. Assured availability of water and fodder increased milk production by 103%. Additional annual income of Rs. 7,015 per year was generated through fish culture. A rise in the groundwater level and higher growth of vegetation around the WHS were also observed. On the basis of increased crop production alone, the WHS proved to be an economically viable venture resulting in a benefit:cost ratio of greater than one. Socioeconomic considerations in the management of the WHS were also studied and showed that community involvement was essential to the success of this project.

Interest in the cultivation of goldenseal is increasing and this may have benefits for agriculture, human health, and conservation. To enable a better understanding of growing conditions, cultivation methods reported in the literature were reviewed, 21 natural goldenseal populations in the northern portion of its natural range in North America were described and analyzed in terms of population size and health, and 15 successful growers were interviewed on requirements for optimal cultivation. Growing conditions in the wild were compared to those reported in the cultivation literature. Summary of data from natural populations suggests goldenseal grows best in mixed hardwood forests, under 60–65% shade, in moist sandy loam soils high in organic matter, with pH 5.7 to 6.3. Similarly, review of the literature suggests that goldenseal grows best in moist, well-drained loams high in organic matter, with pH 5.5 to 6.5. Reported shade requirements vary but 47–80% shade is considered optimal. Growing conditions reported by growers were also consistent with the cultivation literature and similar to conditions of wild populations. Although optimal growing conditions are similar to those for many crops, goldenseal is relatively robust and can grow well in a variety of conditions including wet, predominantly sandy or clay soils with pH as low as 4.8 and as high as 7.8. Cultivation can utilize a ginseng crop infrastructure and goldenseal has been recommended as a rotation crop for ginseng. Commercial production of goldenseal is potentially advantageous because (1) it is an environmentally friendly crop; (2) it has been grown successfully far outside its natural range, is easy to grow, and is considered potentially profitable; and (3) it is relatively inexpensive, having low energy, land area, and fertilization requirements. Development of a sustainable crop may contribute to the protection of native wild germplasm, which can provide valuable material for crop improvement.