This case study documents the start-up of a successful alternative dairy farm in Wisconsin. Initially the vision was to establish a 97-ha biodynamic farm with dairy and cash cropping. Low milk prices throughout most of 1991 and the heavy work load associated with conventional dairying forced the farm family to look for alternative strategies. They experimented with management-intensive grazing in 1992, and by spring 1994 had seeded their entire farm to sod. The work load still was too heavy, so they switched to seasonal dairying and outwintering of their dry stock, which reduced the daily midwinter work load from 12 to 3.5 hours. By the end of 1995, yearly net farm income from operations had risen from $21,500 (1990 and 1991) to $54,000 (1994 and 1995). The farm family, with its alternative approach (biodynamic, grass-based, seasonal milking) weathered the stresses of entering dairy farming at a time when entry rates were very low and existing dairy farmers faced substantial financial pressure. The grassbased system required low purchased feed inputs ($300 per cow) and nearly reached equilibrium in the whole-farm nutrient budget. Good herd management has maintained high productivity (rolling herd average of 17,000 lbs) and excellent herd health. Renting the farm and managing money carefully have resulted in a low debt load ($73 per cow). This study illustrates the complexities and adjustments associated with the initiation of an alternative farm business.

A key determinant of whether livestock manure is an asset or liability for agricultural producers and for society more generally is the amount produced relative to the nearby farmland area to which it can be economically transported for application. The objectives of this study are to estimate manure N and P loadings on the cropland and rangeland associated with 78 feedlot farm operations in South Dakota and to determine if they are greater for larger feedlots.

A substantial fraction of the feedlot operators studied apply plant-available N and P in livestock manure at rates that exceed crop and grass fertility requirements, and intensity of manure nutrient loadings on cropland is strongly and positively related to feedlot size. These findings raise a warning regarding possible nonpoint-source pollution of vulnerable water resources from manure produced by fed cattle in larger feedlots.

Organic farming systems differ fundamentally from conventional ones in their primary focus on management practices that promote and enhance ecological harmony. Organic farmers also tend to have a different socioeconomic profile. In this study, we summarize average socioeconomic characteristics and production practices of a national sample of about 300 certified organic vegetable growers from 14 states and compare them to a large sample of about 6,900 conventional vegetable growers. We also examine the specific materials used by organic growers for pest and nutrient management.

Organic vegetable growers tend to be younger, more educated, less experienced in farming, and less likely to have grown up on a farm than conventional vegetable growers, and tend to operate smaller farms. Over three-quarters of the organic vegetable growers surveyed have small operations (less than 10 acres of vegetables), and they are much younger and work fewer days in off-farm jobs than conventional small growers. In contrast to conventional marketing practices, nearly half the surveyed organic growers, and the majority of small ones, market their vegetables directly to consumers through farmers' markets and other direct marketing channels.

The organic growers rely primarily on traditional organic processes such as green manuring (legumes), animal manuring, composting, and crop rotation to supply crop nutrients, and on cultural and biological tools, including pest-resistant plant varieties, water management techniques, adjustment of planting and harvesting dates, and beneficial organisms, for pest management. Animal meal, fish products, and lime are their most frequently reported supplemental nutrient sources (14, 20 and 28%, respectively, reported using these materials), and Pyrellin EC and petroleum-based soaps were the most frequently reported supplemental pest management materials (used by 6 and 8%, respectively). The pest and nutrient materials used by the organic growers are generally consistent with current guidelines of major certification organizations that provide services to organic growers, and there is high consistency among those guidelines and national recommendations for most of these materials.

The effects of contour live barriers of vetiver and pennisetum on soil erosion were studied on four small farms in south central Honduras. Paired plots were installed and soil erosion measured by changes in the soil surface level of transects 0.3 and 6.0 m up the slope from the barrier. After three years, transects 0.3 m above the barriers significantly retained eroded soil compared with control transects. Soil accumulation by barriers ranged from 2.6 to 11.2 cm, and natural terrace formation (the difference between the barrier and corresponding control transect) ranged from 5.2 to 13.8 cm. No difference was detected between barrier and control for the transects 6.0 m above the barrier. Deposition in front of the barriers and reduction in surface rilling were apparent to farmers. Erosion from up slope on the barrier plots and from both transects in the control sections was not obvious. Direct measurement and farmer observation of sediment deposition by live barriers will help evaluate farmer-identified species for future use. The deposition helps farmers become aware of sheet erosion before the effects of soil degradation on crop yields become grossly apparent and soil fertility restoration becomes too costly for small-scale farmers.

Soil erosion is a major threat to sustaining agricultural production in Tanzania. However, quantitative information is scanty on its effects on yields of major crops for principal soils and management practices. We conducted this study to determine erosion effects on soil moisture, related properties and corn yield on Tropeptic Haplustox and Ultic Haplustalf soils at Mlingano in Tanzania. Four erosion classes (least, slight, moderate, and severe) on Tropeptic Haplustox and three erosion classes (slight, moderate, and severe) on Ultic Haplustalf were established according to the thickness of the Ap horizon under natural field conditions. Accelerated soil erosion reduced soil moisture content, soil organic carbon, available water capacity and water use efficiency. Mean volumetric soil moisture content (average of both soils) during the growing season was 23.3% for severe, 24.8% for moderate, and 25.7% for slight erosion. Mean soil organic carbon content was 1.15% for severe, 1.64% for moderate and 1.97% for slight erosion. Mean available water capacity was 2.6 cm for severe, 3.5 cm for moderate, and 4.0 cm for slight erosion. Soil bulk density and excessive degree days of soil temperature above 25°C increased with severity of erosion. These adverse changes accentuated constraints on crop growth and reduced corn (Zea mays) yield on severely eroded soil by 45% and 59% for Tropeptic Haplustox and Ultic Haplustalf soils, respectively. The water use efficiency of corn was 21.6 kg ha-1 cm-1 in the least eroded class versus 17 kg ha-1 cm-1 in the severely eroded class for the Tropeptic Haplustox, and 23 kg ha-1 cm-1 in the slightly eroded and 18.1 kg ha-1 cm-1 in the severely eroded class for Ultic Haplustalf.

This article seeks to stimulate thought on the philosophy behind agricultural research. Pragmatism is identified as a philosophical basis for studying environmental issues that focus on human behavior. The ways in which this approach is applicable to the study of alternative agriculture are illuminated. “Behavioral pragmatists” differ from “behavioral positivists” in their aim, focus, process, and approach to research. I describe the main goals of the pragmatic behavioral approach: accepting a systems approach to study the interrelationships between humans and the environment; gaining understanding through human experiences; viewing problems as whole complex “problematic situations”; and promoting social activism and appropriate policy formulation. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods is often most effective. Pragmatism allows for holistic analysis that incorporates numerous factors that influence human uses of the environment. A specific example shows how behavioral pragmatism is effective in research on alternative agriculture.