Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T01:24:38.487Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Visible and Invisible Differences: The Somali Paradox

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 March 2011

Abstract

In exploring the difficulties experienced by the traditionally politically uncentralised Somalis in establishing a stable and effective state, based on their ethnicity, this article compares ethnicity, nationalism and lineage identity. In this case, ethnicity and nationalism are local products, influenced but not created by the colonial experience. They have had to contend with the intractable force of segmentary lineage identity, which has proved extremely difficult to adapt and accommodate to the requirements of modern statehood. In its cultural context, agnation is all the more pervasive and powerful in constituting an ‘invisible’ bond, conceived by Somalis as a biologically based distinction like ‘race’. Unlike race, it is almost infinitely elastic and divisible. Ethnic identity, which rests on external distinctions such as language, culture and religion, cannot be broken down into a series of formally equivalent segments, but is less binding as a social force. Today, after the collapse of the state of Somalia in 1991, following protracted grass‐roots peace‐making between clans, two parts of the nation—the former British Somaliland, and the north‐eastern region of Somalia (‘Puntland’, based on the Majerteyn clan, and other closely related clans)—have developed separate local states. Although Somaliland claims complete independence, which Puntland does not, both polities incorporate parliamentary institutions that accommodate traditional, and modern political leaders and processes. The ex‐Italian residue, Southern Somalia, still without any form of government, is in what appears to be the final throes of its long‐running, fourteenth grandiose international ‘peace’ conference in Kenya. Thousands of delegates, in various configurations, have already spent over eighteen months in these talks. Although its embryonic constitution now recognises ‘clans’ as constituent political units, this attempt to re‐establish Somalia is based on the usual ‘top‐down’ approach, rather than on spontaneous local negotiations amongst ‘stakeholders’ on the ground, such as those on which Somaliland and Puntland are founded. With contingents of foreign ‘experts’, the whole process seeks to reinstate a familiar Eurocentric state model, unadapted to Somali conditions.

Résumé

En examinant les difficultés rencontrées par les Somaliens, traditionnellement non centralisés sur le plan politique, à fonder un État fonctionnel et stable sur la base de leur ethnicité, cet article compare l'ethnicité, le nationalisme et l'identité du lignage. Dans ce cas, l'ethnicité et le nationalisme sont des produits locaux, influencés mais non créés par l'expérience coloniale. Ils ont été aux prises avec la force irréductible de l'identité du lignage segmentaire, qui s'est révélée être extrêmement difficile à adapter aux besoins du statut d'État moderne. Dans son contexte culturel, l'agnation est encore plus répandue et puissante à constituer un lien “invisible”, conçue par les Somaliens comme une différence à fondement biologique comme la “race”. Contrairement à la race, elle est quasiment infiniment élastique et divisible. L'identité ethnique, qui repose sur des différences externes comme la langue, la culture et la religion, n'est pas divisible en une série de segments formellement équivalents, mais elle a moins de pouvoir liant en tant que force sociale. Aujourd'hui, après la chute de l'État somalien en 1991 puis l'instauration d'une paix prolongée entre les clans au niveau local, deux régions du pays, l'ancien Somaliland britannique et la région du Puntland (des clans Majertine et autres apparentés) au nord‐est de la Somalie, ont créé des États locaux séparés. Tandis que le Somaliland revendique une indépendance totale, ce que ne fait pas le Puntland, ces deux États possèdent des institutions parlementaires qui concilient les responsables et processus politiques traditionnels et modernes. Le sud de la Somalie, ancienne colonie italienne toujours dépourvue de gouvernement d'aucune sorte, semble arriver au terme de sa longue et grandiose quatorzième conférence de paix internationale au Kenya. Depuis dix‐huit mois, ces discussions mobilisent des milliers de participants de configurations variées. Bien que sa constitution embryonnaire reconnaisse désormais les “clans” comme des groupes politiques constitués, cette tentative de rétablir la Somalie repose sur l'approche descendante habituelle, plutôt que sur des négociations locales spontanées entre “parties prenantes” sur le terrain, telles que celles sur lesquelles sont fondées le Somaliland et le Puntland. Assisté de contingents d'“experts” étrangers, le processus global cherche à réinstaurer un modèle d'État eurocentrique familier inadapté aux réalités somaliennes.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © International African Institute 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Aden Sheikh, Mohamed. 1994. Arrivederci a Mogadiscio. Somalia: l'indipendenza smarrita. 2nd edn. Updated and enlarged. (1991. Arrivederci a Mogadiscio. Dall'amministrazione fiduciaria italiana alla fuga di Siad Barre. Conversazione sulla Somalia con Pietro Petrucci.) Roma: Edizioni associate.Google Scholar
Ahmed, H. O. 1993. Morire a Mogadiscio: diario di guerra Mogadishu 30.12.1990/16.7.1991. Rome: Edizioni Lavoro.Google Scholar
Ahmed, I. 2000. ‘Remittances and their impact in post‐war Somaliland’, Disasters 24 (4): 380‐380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Argyle, J. 1969. ‘European nationalism and African tribalism’, in P. H. Gulliver (ed.), Tradition and Transition in East Africa: studies of the tribal element in the modern era. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Argyle, J. 1971. Oedipus in Central Africa. Inaugural lecture. Natal: University Press. Besteman, C. 1996. ‘Representing violence and ‘'othering'’ Somalia’, Cultural Anthropology 11 (1): 120‐120.Google Scholar
Argyle, J. 1998. ‘Primordialist blinders: a reply to I. M. Lewis’, Cultural Anthropology 13 (1): 109‐109.Google Scholar
Bryden, M. 2003. ‘The banana test: is Somaliland ready for recognition?’,CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Annales d'Ethiopie XIX: 341‐341.Google Scholar
Compagnon, D. 1990. ‘The Somali opposition fronts’, Horn of Africa 13 (1,2).Google Scholar
Drysdale, J. 2000. Stoics without Pillows: a way forward for the Somalilands. London: HAAN.Google Scholar
Farah, A. Y.(with I. M. Lewis). 1993. Somalia: the roots of reconciliation. Peacemaking endeavours of contemporary lineage leaders. London: ActionAid.Google Scholar
Gellner, E. 1983. Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell; Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Ghalib, J. M. 1995. The Cost of Dictatorship: the Somali experience. New York: Lilian Barber.Google Scholar
Haakonsen, J. M. 1984. Scientific Socialism and Self‐Reliance: the case of Somalia's ‘instant' fishermen. Bergen: Department of Social Anthropology, University of Bergen.Google Scholar
Hassan, M. 1980. ‘Status of human rights in Somalia’, Horn of Africa 3 (2): 3‐3.Google Scholar
Helander, B. 1996. ‘Rahanweyn sociability: a model for other Somalis?’ in R. J. Hayward and I. M. Lewis (eds), Voice and Power: the culture of language in North‐East Africa: essays in honour of B. W. Andrzejewski. London: School of Oriental and African Studies.Google Scholar
Helander, B. 1998. ‘The Emperor's new clothes removed: a critique of Besteman's “Violent Politics and the Politics of Violence” ‘, American Ethnologist 25: 122‐122.Google Scholar
Helander, B. 2003. The Slaughtered Camel: coping with fictitious descent among the Hubeer of southern Somalia. Uppsala: Department of Cultural Anthropology and Ethnology, University of Uppsala.Google Scholar
ms. ‘Rumours of Rain: ideas of centralisation, social fragmentation and the nature of power in post‐government Somalia’. Deposited in the Helander archive in the anthropological collection of Uppsala University Library.Google Scholar
Hersi, A. A. 1977. ‘The Arab Factor in Somali History’. Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross). 1997. Spared from the Spear: traditional Somali behaviour in warfare. Nairobi: International Committee of the Red Cross, Somali Delegation.Google Scholar
Issa-Salwe, Abdisalam M.(Cabdisalaam M. Ciisa‐Salwe). 1996. The Collapse of the Somali State: the impact of the colonial legacy. London: A. M. Issa‐Salwe in association with HAAN.Google Scholar
Kapteijns, L.(with Maryan Omar Ali). 1999. Women's Voices in a Men's World: women and the pastoral tradition in northern Somali orature, c. 1899‐1980. Westport CT: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Kapteijns, L., and Farah, M. 2001. ‘I. M. Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy’, Africa 71 (4): 719719.Google Scholar
Laitin, David D., and Samatar, Said S.. 1987. Somalia: nation in search of a state. Boulder CO: Westview Press; London: GowerGoogle Scholar
Lewis, I. M. 1958. ‘Modern political movements in Somaliland’, Africa 28 (3, 4): 244‐244, 344‐344.Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M. 1961. A Pastoral Democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. London and New York: Oxford University Press, for the International African Institute. (1999. With new introduction by Said Samatar and new afterword by I. M. Lewis. Oxford: James Currey, for the IAI).Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M. 1962. ‘Lineage continuity and modern commerce in Northern Somaliland’, in P. Bohannan and G. Dalton (eds), Markets in Africa. Evanston IL: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M. 1969. ‘From nomadism to cultivation: the expansion of political solidarity in southern Somalia’, in M. Douglas and P. M. Kaberry (eds), Man in Africa. London and New York: Tavistock Publications.Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M. 1994. Blood and Bone: the call of kinship in Somali society. Lawrenceville NJ: Red Sea Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M. 1998a. Saints and Somalis: popular Islam in a clan‐based society. London: HAAN; Lawrenceville NJ: Red Sea Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M. 1998b. ‘Doing violence to ethnography: some comments on Catherine Besteman's distorted reporting on Somalia’, Cultural Anthropology 13: 100‐100.Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M. 1999. Arguments with Ethnography: comparative approaches to history, politics, and religion. London and New Brunswick NJ: Athlone Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M. 2001. ‘Why the warlords won’, Times Literary Supplement, June 8.Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M. 2002a. A Modern History of the Somali: nation and state in the Horn of Africa. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M. 2002b. ‘Mohamad Siyad Barre's ghost’, Journal of the Anglo‐Somali Society 32: 21‐21.Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M.(ed.). 1983. Nationalism and Self Determination in the Horn of Africa. London: Ithaca Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, I. M., and Mayall, J., (eds). 1995. ‘A Study of Decentralised Structures for Somalia’. Report presented to the European Union (Somali Unit).Google Scholar
Little, P. D. 2003. Somalia: economy without state. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Luling, V. 2002. Somali Sultanate: the Geledi city‐state over 150 years. London: HAAN.Google Scholar
Mohamed, J. 2002. ‘Imperial politics and nationalism in the Decolonisation of Somaliland, 1954‐1960’, English Historical Review CXVII: 494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohamed, J.in press. ‘Somali diaspora nationalism and Haji Farah Oomar’.Google Scholar
Mukhtar, M. H. 1996. ‘The plight of the agro‐pastoral society of Somalia’, Review of African Political Economy 32: 543‐543.Google Scholar
Nicolosi, G. 2002. Imperialismo e Resistenza in Corno d'Africa. Mohammed Abdullah Hassan e il derviscismo somalo (1899‐1920). Soveria Mannelli CZ: Rubbettino.Google Scholar
Osman, A. Y. 1996. In the Name of our Fathers. London: HAAN.Google Scholar
Prunier, G. 1992. ‘A candid view of the Somali National Movement’, Horn of Africa 13, 14: 107‐107.Google Scholar
Samatar, A. I. 1989. The State and Rural Transformation in Northern Somalia, 1884‐1986. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Samatar, A. I.(ed.). 1994. The Somali Challenge: from Catastrophe to Renewal? Boulder CO: L. Rienner.Google Scholar
Samatar, S. S. 1996. ‘Somalia's horse that feeds his master’, in R. J. Hayward and I. M. Lewis (eds), Voice and Power: the culture of language in North East Africa. London:Google Scholar
Samatar, S. S. 1999. ‘Introduction’, in I. M. Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. 3rd edn. Classics in African Anthropology. Oxford: James Currey, for the International African Institute.Google Scholar
Schlee, G. 2002. ‘Regularités dans le chaos. Traits recurrents dans l'organisation politico‐religieuse et militaires des Somali’, L'Homme 161: 17‐17.Google Scholar
Sheik-’Abdi, ‘Abdi., 1993. Divine Madness: Mohammed Abdulle Hassan (1856‐1920). London: Zed.Google Scholar
Vail, L.(ed.). 1989. The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. London: James Currey.Google Scholar