Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T15:12:57.370Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Applications of Satellite Remote Sensing for Archaeological Survey: A Case Study from the Sinis Archaeological Project, Sardinia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 March 2020

Daniel Plekhov Open the ORCID record for Daniel Plekhov [Opens in a new window] ,
Linda R. Gosner Open the ORCID record for Linda R. Gosner [Opens in a new window] ,
Alexander J. Smith  and
Jessica Nowlin
Daniel Plekhov*
Affiliation:
Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World, Brown University, 60 George St., Providence, RI02912, USA
Linda R. Gosner
Affiliation:
Department of Classical Studies and Society of Fellows, University of Michigan, 435 S. State Street, Ann Arbor, MI48109, USA
Alexander J. Smith
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, The College at Brockport - SUNY, 350 New Campus Drive, Brockport, NY14420, USA
Jessica Nowlin
Affiliation:
Department of Philosophy and Classics, University of Texas at San Antonio, One UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX78249, USA
*
(daniel_plekhov@brown.edu, corresponding author)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Satellite imagery has long been recognized as well suited for the regional and ecological questions of many archaeological surveys. One underexplored aspect of such data is their temporal resolution. It is now possible for areas to be imaged on an almost daily basis, and this resolution offers new opportunities for studying landscapes through remote sensing in parallel with ground-based survey. This article explores the applications of these data for visibility assessment and land-cover change detection in the context of the Sinis Archaeological Project, a regional archaeological survey of west-central Sardinia. We employ imagery provided by Planet, which has a spatial resolution of 3 m, in four spectral bands, and is collected daily. Using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values calculated for each survey unit, we find that there is a relationship between NDVI values and field-reported visibility in general, though the strength of this correlation differs according to land-cover classes. We also find the data to be effective at tracking short-term changes in field conditions that allow us to differentiate fields of similar land cover and visibility. We consider limitations and potentials of these data and encourage further experimentation and development.

Las imágenes de satélite han sido reconocidas como herramientas adecuadas de las prospecciones arqueológicas para ayudar a contestar preguntas regionales y ecológicas. Un aspecto poco explorado de este tipo de datos es su resolución temporal. Hoy en día es posible recopilar imágenes de diferentes áreas diariamente y esta resolución ofrece nuevas oportunidades para estudiar el paisaje a través de sensores remotos junto con prospecciones pedestres. Este artículo explora las aplicaciones de estos datos para evaluar su visibilidad y la detección del cambio de la cubierta terrestre en el contexto del Sinis Archaeological Project, una prospección arqueológica regional del centro-oeste de Cerdeña. Se utilizaron imágenes proporcionadas por Planet, con una resolución espacial de 3 m, en cuatro bandas espectrales y recolectadas diariamente. Utilizando valores del Índice de Vegetación de Diferencia Normalizada (NDVI, por sus siglas en inglés) calculados para cada unidad de prospección, se encontró que hay una relación entre los valores de NDVI y la visibilidad del campo reportada en general. Sin embargo, la fuerza de esta correlación difiere de acuerdo con las clases de cobertura de suelo. Asimismo, se encontró que los datos fueron efectivos para rastrear los cambios a corto plazo en las condiciones del suelo que permitieron diferenciar campos con cubierta de suelo y visibilidad similar. Se consideran las limitaciones y potenciales de estos datos y se promueve futuros desarrollos y experimentaciones.

Keywords

archaeological surveyvisibilityNDVIhigh temporal resolutionremote sensingprospección arqueológicavisibilidadNDVIalta resolución temporalsensores remotos
Type
Articles
Information
Advances in Archaeological Practice , Volume 8 , Issue 2 , May 2020 , pp. 192 - 205
Copyright
Copyright 2020 © Society for American Archaeology

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES CITED

Adams, Robert McCormick 1965 Land behind Baghdad: A History of the Settlement on the Diyala Plains. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Agapiou, Athos 2017 Remote Sensing Heritage in a Petabyte-Scale: Satellite Data and Heritage Earth Engine© Applications. International Journal of Digital Earth 10:85–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agapiou, Athos, Alexakis, Dimitrios D., Sarris, Apostolos, and Hadjimitsis, Diofantos G. 2014 Evaluating the Potentials of Sentinel-2 for Archaeological Perspective. Remote Sensing 6:2176–2194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agapiou, Athos, Hadjimitsis, Diofantos G., and Alexakis, Dimitrios D. 2012 Evaluation of Broadband and Narrowband Vegetation Indices for the Identification of Archaeological Crop Marks. Remote Sensing 4:3892–3919.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agapiou, Athos, Hadjimitsis, Diofantos G., Sarris, Apostolos, Georgopoulos, Andreas, and Alexakis, Dimitrios D. 2013 Optimum Temporal and Spectral Window for Monitoring Crop Marks over Archaeological Remains in the Mediterranean Region. Journal of Archaeological Science 40:1479–1492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alcock, Susan E., and Cherry, John F. 2004 Introduction. In Side-by-Side Survey: Comparative Regional Studies in the Mediterranean World, edited by Alcock, Susan E. and Cherry, John F., pp. 1–12. Oxbow, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Allen, Michael J. 1991 Analysing the Landscape: A Geographical Approach to Archaeological Problems. In Interpreting Artefact Scatters: Contributions to Ploughzone Archaeology, edited by John Schofield, A., pp. 39–57. Oxbow, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Ammerman, Albert J. 1981 Surveys and Archaeological Research. Annual Review of Anthropology 10:63–88.Google Scholar
Ammerman, Albert J. 1995 The Dynamics of Modern Land Use and the Acconia Survey. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 8:77–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ammerman, Albert J., and Bonardi, Sandro 1981 Recent Developments in the Study of Neolithic Settlements in Calabria. In Archaeology and Italian Society: Prehistoric, Roman and Medieval Studies, edited by Barker, Graeme and Hodges, Richard, pp. 335–42. BAR International Series 102. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Avola, Giovanni, Di Gennaro, Salvatore Filippo, Cantini, Claudio, Riggi, Ezio, Muratore, Francesco, Tornambè, Calogero, and Matese, Alessandro 2019 Remotely Sensed Vegetation Indices to Discriminate Field-Grown Olive Cultivars. Remote Sensing 11:1–9.Google Scholar
Banning, Edward B. 2002 Archaeological Survey. Springer, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banning, E. B., Hawkins, Alicia L., and Stewart, S. T. 2006 Detection Functions for Archaeological Survey. American Antiquity 71:723–742.Google Scholar
Banning, E. B., Hawkins, Alicia L., and Stewart, S. T. 2011 Sweep Widths and the Detection of Artifacts in Archaeological Survey. Journal of Archaeological Science 38:3447–3458.Google Scholar
Barton, C. Michael, Bernabeu, Joan, Aura, J. Emili, Garcia, Oreto, and La Roca, Neus 2002 Dynamic Landscapes, Artifact Taphonomy, and Landuse Modeling in the Western Mediterranean. Geoarchaeology 17:155–190.Google Scholar
Bevan, Andrew, and Conolly, James 2006 GIS, Archaeological Survey, and Landscape Archaeology on the Island of Kythera, Greece. Journal of Field Archaeology 29:123–138.Google Scholar
Bevan, Andrew, and Conolly, James 2013 Mediterranean Islands, Fragile Communities and Persistent Landscapes: Antikythera in Long-Term Perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Bintliff, John 1992 Erosion in the Mediterranean Lands: A Reconsideration of Pattern, Process and Methodology. In Past and Present Soil Erosion, edited by Boardman, John and Bell, Martin, pp. 125–131. Oxbow, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Bintliff, John 2000 Beyond Dots on the Map: Future Directions for Surface Artefact Survey in Greece. In The Future of Surface Artefact Survey in Europe, edited by Bintliff, John, Kuna, Martin, and Venclová, Natalie, pp. 3–20. Sheffield Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Bintliff, John, Howard, Phil, and Snodgrass, Anthony 1999 The Hidden Landscape of Prehistoric Greece. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 12:139–168.Google Scholar
Bintliff, John, and Snodgrass, Anthony 1988 Off-Site Pottery Distributions: A Regional and Interregional Perspective. Current Anthropology 29:506–513.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blasetti Fantauzzi, Chiara 2015 Preliminary Report on the Survey Project in the Territory of Cornus. In L'Africa romana: Atti del XX Convegno Internazionale di studi Alghero—Porto Conte Ricerche, 26–29 settembre 2013, edited by Ruggeri, Paolo, pp. 2011–2019. Carocci Editore, Roma.Google Scholar
Blasetti Fantauzzi, Chiara, and De Vincenzo, Salvatore 2016 Indagini archeologiche nella città romana di Cornus (OR). In Bosa: La città e il suo territorio dall'età antica al mondo contemporaneo, edited by Mattone, Antonello and Cocco, Maria Bastiana, pp. 141–153. Carlo Delfino Editore, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy.Google Scholar
Calleja, Javier F., Pagés, Otilia Requejo, Díaz-Álvarez, Nelson, Peón, Juanjo, Gutiérrez, Natalia, Martín-Hernández, Esperanza, Relea, Alejandro Cebada, Melendi, David Rubio, and Álvarez, Paulino Fernández 2018 Detection of Buried Archaeological Remains with the Combined Use of Satellite Multispectral Data and UAV Data. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 73:555–573.Google Scholar
Casana, Jesse, and Laugier, Elise Jakoby 2017 Satellite Imagery-Based Monitoring of Archaeological Site Damage in the Syrian Civil War. PloS ONE 12(11):e0188589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casana, Jesse, Wiewel, Adam, Cool, Autumn, Hill, Austin Chad, Fisher, Kevin D., and Laugier, Elise J. 2017 Archaeological Aerial Thermography in Theory and Practice. Advances in Archaeological Practice 5:1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casarotto, Anita, Stek, Tesse D., Pelgrom, Jeremia, van Otterloo, Ruud H., and Sevink, Jan 2017 Assessing Visibility and Geomorphological Biases in Regional Field Surveys: The Case of Roman Aesernia. Geoarchaeology 33:177–192.Google Scholar
Castangia, Giandaniele 2012 Capo Mannu Project 2011 Survey Report. Traces in Time 2:1–42.Google Scholar
Castangia, Giandaniele 2013 Capo Mannu Project 2012 Ricognizione Sistematica del Territorio. Traces in Time 3:1–15.Google Scholar
Cherry, John F. 1983 Frogs around the Pond: Perspectives in Current Archaeological Survey Projects. In Archaeological Survey in the Mediterranean Area, edited by Keller, Donald R. and Rupp, David W., pp. 375–416. BAR International Series 155. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Cherry, John F., Davis, Jack L, and Mantzourane, Helene 1991 Landscape Archaeology as Long-Term History: Northern Keos in the Cycladic Islands from Earliest Settlement until Modern Times. UCLA Institute of Archaeology, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Cuca, Branka, and Hadjimitsis, Diofantos G. 2017 Space Technology Meets Policy: An Overview of Earth Observation Sensors for Monitoring of Cultural Landscapes within Policy Framework for Cultural Heritage. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 14:727–733.Google Scholar
Davis, Jack L., and Sutton, Susan B. 1995 Response to A.J. Ammerman “The Dynamics of Modern Land Use and the Acconia Survey.” Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 8:113–123.Google Scholar
Dyson, Stephen L., and Rowland, Robert J. 1991 Continuity and Change in Roman Rural Sardinia: the Maryland-Wesleyan Survey. In Nuragic Architecture in Its Military, Territorial, and Socio-Economic Context, edited by Frizell, Barbro Santillo, pp. 53–63. Paul Aström Publishers, Stockholm.Google Scholar
Dyson, Stephen L., and Rowland, Robert J. 1992 Survey and Settlement Reconstruction in West-Central Sardinia. American Journal of Archaeology 96:203–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Behaedi, Raghda, and Ghoneim, Eman 2018 Flood Risk Assessment of the Abu Simbel Temple Complex (Egypt) Based on High-Resolution Spaceborne Stereo Imagery. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 20:458–467.Google Scholar
Elfadaly, Abdelaziz, Attia, Wael, and Lasaponara, Rosa 2018 Monitoring the Environmental Risks around Medinet Habu and Ramesseum Temple at West Luxor, Egypt, Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 25:587–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fish, Suzanne K., and Kowalewski, Stephen A. 1990 The Archaeology of Regions: A Case for Full-Coverage Survey. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Francovich, Riccardo, Patterson, Helen, and Barker, Graeme 2000 Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages. Oxbow, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
García Sánchez, Jesús, and Lobato, Cristina Charro 2018 Sentinel-2 Tools to Improve Field Survey Planning: Methods and First Experiences. Aerial Archaeology Research Group Newsletter 56:34–41.Google Scholar
Given, Michael 2004 Mapping and Manuring: Can We Compare Sherd Density Figures? In Side-by-Side Survey: Comparative Regional Studies in the Mediterranean World, edited by Alcock, Susan E. and Cherry, John F., pp. 13–21. Oxbow, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Goldberg, Mitchell, Li, Sanmei, Goodman, Steven, Lindsey, Dan, Sjoberg, Bill, and Sun, Donglian 2018 Contributions of Operational Satellites in Monitoring the Catastrophic Floodwaters due to Hurricane Harvey. Remote Sensing 10:1256.Google Scholar
Gosner, Linda R., and Smith, Alexander J. 2018 Landscape Use and Local Settlement at the Nuraghe S'Urachi (West-Central Sardinia): Results from the First Two Seasons of Site Survey (2014–2015). Fasti Online Documents & Research Survey Series 7:1–27. Electronic document, www.fastionline.org/docs/FOLDER-sur-2018-7.pdf, accessed January 23, 2020.Google Scholar
Khalaf, Nadia, and Insoll, Timothy 2019 Monitoring Islamic Archaeological Landscapes in Ethiopia Using Open Source Satellite Imagery. Journal of Field Archaeology 44:401–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, Peng, Di, Liping, Du, Qian, and Wang, Lizhe 2018 Remote Sensing Big Data: Theory, Methods and Applications. Remote Sensing 10:711.Google Scholar
Lloyd, John, and Barker, Graeme 1981 Rural Settlement in Roman Molise. Problems of Archaeological Survey. In Archaeology and Italian Society: Prehistoric, Roman and Medieval Studies, edited by Barker, Graeme and Hodges, Richard, pp. 289–304. BAR International Series 102. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Lock, Gary, Bell, Tylor, and Lloyd, John 1999 Towards a Methodology for Modeling Surface Survey Data: The Sangro Valley Project. In Geographical Information Systems and Landscape Archaeology, edited by Gillings, Mark, Mattingly, David, and van Dalen, Jan, pp. 55–63. Oxbow, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Louhaichi, Mounir, Borman, Michael M., and Johnson, Douglas E. 2001 Spatially Located Platform and Aerial Photography for Documentation of Grazing Impacts on Wheat. Geocarto International 16(1):65–70.Google Scholar
Mattingly, David 2000 Methods of Collection, Recording and Quantification. In Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages, edited by Francovich, Riccardo, Patterson, Helen, and Barker, Graeme, pp. 5–15. Oxbow, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
McLeester, Madeleine, Casana, Jesse, Schurr, Mark R., Hill, Austin Chad, and Wheeler, Joseph H. 2018 Detecting Prehistoric Landscape Features Using Thermal, Multispectral, and Historical Imagery Analysis at Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie, Illinois. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 21:450–459.Google Scholar
Opitz, Rachel, and Herrmann, Jason 2018 Recent Trends and Long-Standing Problems in Archaeological Remote Sensing. Journal of Computer Applications in Archaeology 1:19–41.Google Scholar
Orengo, Hector A., and Garcia-Molsosa, A.. 2019 A Brave New World for Archaeological Survey: Automated Machine Learning-Based Potsherd Detection Using High-Resolution Drone Imagery. Journal of Archaeological Science 112:105013. DOI:10.1016/j.jas.2019.105013.Google Scholar
Plekhov, Daniel, and Levine, Evan I. 2018 Assessing the Effects of Severe Weather Events through Remote Sensing on Samothrace, Greece: Applications for the Management of Cultural Resources. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 21:810–820.Google Scholar
Plog, Fred 1974 The Study of Prehistoric Change. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Plog, Stephan, Plog, Fred, and Wait, Walter 1978 Decision Making in Modern Surveys. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, edited by Schiffer, Michael B., pp. 383–421. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
R Core Team 2019 R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://cran.r-project.org/doc/FAQ/R-FAQ.html#Citing-R.Google Scholar
Roppa, Andrea, and van Dommelen, Peter 2012 Rural Settlement and Land-Use in Punic and Roman Republican Sardinia. Journal of Roman Archaeology 25:49–68.Google Scholar
Sanders, William T., Parsons, Jeffrey R., and Santley, Robert S. 1979 The Basin of Mexico Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization: Karten Karten. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Schiffer, Michael B., Sullivan, Alan P., and Klinger, Timothy C. 1978 The Design of Archaeological Surveys. World Archaeology 10:1–28.Google Scholar
Schon, Robert 2000 On a Site and out of Sight: Where Have Our Data Gone? Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 13:107–111.Google Scholar
Schon, Robert 2002 Seeding the Landscape: Experimental Contributions to Regional Survey Methodology. PhD dissertation, Department of Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology, Bryn Mawr College, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Sinis Archaeological Project 2019 Project Overview. Electronic document, https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/sinis-archaeological-project/project-overview/, accessed August 12, 2019.Google Scholar
Stiglitz, Alfonso 2007 Fenici e Nuragici nell'entroterra tharrense. Sardinia Corsica et Baleares Antiquae 5:87–98.Google Scholar
Stiglitz, Alfonso 2016 Nuragici, Fenici, Sardi: Uno Sguardo sa S'Urachi (San Vero Milis-OR). Layers: Archeologia Territorio Contesti 1:86–106.Google Scholar
Stiglitz, Alfonso, Cusí, Enrique Díes, Ramis, Damià, Roppa, Andrea, and van Dommelen, Peter 2015 Intorno al nuraghe: Notizie preliminari sul progetto S'Urachi (San Vero Milis, OR). Quaderni. Rivista di Archeologia 26:191–218.Google Scholar
Tapete, Deodato, and Cigna, Francesca 2018 Appraisal of Opportunities and Perspectives for the Systematic Condition Assessment of Heritage Sites with Copernicus Sentinel-2 High-Resolution Multispectral Imagery. Remote Sensing 10:1–22.Google Scholar
Tartaron, Thomas F., Gregory, Timothy E., Pullen, Daniel J., Noller, Jay S., Rothans, Richard M., Rife, Joseph L., Tzortzopoulon-Gregory, Lita, Schon, Robert, Caraher, William R., Pettegrew, David K., and Nakassis, Dimitri 2006 The Eastern Korinthia Archaeological Survey: Integrated Methods for a Dynamic Landscape. Hesperia 75:453–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Team, Planet 2017 Planet Application Program Interface: In Space for Life on Earth. San Francisco, CA. https://api.planet.com/.Google Scholar
Terrenato, Nicola 2000 The Visibility of Sites and the Interpretation of Field Survey Results: Towards an Analysis of Incomplete Distributions. In Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages, edited by Francovich, Riccardo, Patterson, Helen, and Barker, Graeme, pp. 60–71. Oxbow, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Terrenato, Nicola, and Ammerman, Albert J. 1996 Visibility and Site Recovery in the Cecina Valley Survey, Italy. Journal of Field Archaeology 23:91–109.Google Scholar
Tetford, Pamela E., Desloges, Joseph R., and Nakassis, Dimitri 2018 The Potential Relationship between Archaeological Artifact Exposure and Surface Geomorphic Processes: Northeastern Peloponnese, Greece. Journal of Field Archaeology 43:538–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, Stephen 2004 Side-by-Side and Back-to-Front: Exploring Intra-Regional Latitudinal and Longitudinal Comparability in Survey Data: Three Case Studies from Metaponto, Southern Italy. In Side-by-Side Survey: Comparative Regional Studies in the Mediterranean World, edited by Alcock, Susan E. and Cherry, John F., pp. 65–85. Oxbow, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Tore, Giovanni 1984a Per Una Rilettura Del Complesso Nuragico Di S'Uraki, Loc. Su Pardu, San Vero Milis – Oristano (Sardegna). In The Deya Conference of Prehistory: Early Settlement in the Western Mediterranean Islands and the Peripheral Areas, edited by Waldren, William H., Chapman, Robert, Lewthwaite, James, and Kennard, Rex-Claire, pp. 703–24. BAR International Series 229. Archaeopress, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Tore, Giovanni 1984b San Vero Milis, Loc. Su Pardu, Complesso Nuragico e Villaggio Punico-Romano Di S'Uraki. In I Sardi. La Sardegna Dal Paleolitico All'età Romana, edited by Anati, Emmanuel, pp. 203–20. Jaka Books, Milan, Italy.Google Scholar
Tronchetti, Carlo 1986 Nuragic Statuary from Monte Prama. In Studies in Sardinian Archaeology II: Sardinia in the Western Mediterranean, edited by Balmuth, Miriam S., pp. 41–60. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Tronchetti, Carlo 1988 I Sardi: Traffici, Relazioni, Ideologie nella Sardegna Arcaica. Biblioteca di Archeologia 9. Longanesi, Milan, Italy.Google Scholar
Van Dommelen, Peter 1998 On Colonial Grounds: A Comparative Study of Colonialism and Rural Settlement in First Millennium BC West Central Sardinia. Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands.Google Scholar
Van Dommelen, Peter, Cusí, Enrique Díes, Gosner, Linda, Hayne, Jeremy, Jorda, Guillem Pérez, Ramis, Damià, Roppa, Andrea, Stiglitz, Alfonso 2018 Un millennio di storie: Nuove notizie preliminari sul progetto S'Urachi (San Vero Milis, OR), 2016–2018. Quaderni: Rivista di Archeologia 29:141–165.Google Scholar
Van Leusen, P. Martijn, Pizziolo, Giovanna, and Sarti, Lucia (editors) 2011 Hidden Landscapes of Mediterranean Europe: Cultural and Methodological Biases in Pre- and Protohistoric Landscape Studies. BAR International Series 2320. Archaeopress, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Verhoeven, A. A. A. 1991 Visibility Factors Affecting Artifact Recovery in the Agro Pontino Survey. In The Agro Pontino Survey Project: Methods and Preliminary Results, edited by Voorips, A., Loving, S. H., and Kamermans, H., pp. 87–97. Instituut voor Pre- en Protohistorische Archeologie, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Wandsnider, LuAnn, and Camilli, Eileen L. 1992 The Character of Surface Archaeological Deposits and Its Influence on Survey Accuracy. Journal of Field Archaeology 19:169–188.Google Scholar
Webster, Gary 2016 The Archaeology of Nuragic Sardinia. Equinox, Sheffield, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R. 1953 Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in the Virú Valley, Peru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Wilson, R. J A. 2013 Becoming Roman Overseas? Sicily and Sardinia in the Later Roman Republic. In A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic, edited by Evans, Jane Derose, pp. 485–504. Blackwell, Malden, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Xue, Jinru, and Su, Baofeng 2017 Significant Remote Sensing Vegetation Indices: A Review of Developments and Applications. Journal of Sensors 2017:1–17.Google Scholar
Zucca, Raimondo 1993 Tharros. Edizioni Giovanni Corrias, Oristano, Italy.Google Scholar
Zucca, Raimondo 2016 Archeologia della Sardegna Romana. Carlo Delfino Editore, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Plekhov et al. supplementary material

Plekhov et al. supplementary material 1
Download Plekhov et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 590 KB
Supplementary material: File

Plekhov et al. supplementary material

Plekhov et al. supplementary material 2

Download Plekhov et al. supplementary material(File)
File 17.4 KB