Bipolar disorder in pregnancy may be difficult to treat. The dilemma is whether the women should continue medication throughout pregnancy, and maybe accept a minor risk to harm their unborn child, or discontinue medication and increase the risk of recurrence, which can lead to maternal morbidity, thereby endangering themselves and their foetus.

In September 2016, three electronic search databases; PubMed, Scopus and PsycInfo, were used searching for clinical trials concerning this question. Eight clinical trials concerning risk of recurrence after discontinuation of medication in pregnancy were included.

There is no consensus concerning the risk of discontinuation of medication during pregnancy among bipolar women. The evidence from the trials included underscore that there seem to be a group of pregnant women who are stable despite they are not receiving mood stabilisers during pregnancy. Besides, there is a group of more severe and more unstable bipolar disorders that seem to benefit of a more close monitoring, support and prophylactic medication during pregnancy and postpartum period to prevent recurrence.

For the more stable bipolar women we recommend a well planned and more slowly discontinuation of medication before pregnancy. For the unplanned pregnancies it is important to consider the possibility of a more slowly discontinuation. For the more severe conditions of bipolar disorder, it is important to secure a close monitoring of medication. As the risk of postpartum relapse is high, medication may be started soon after delivery.

Depression may be difficult to treat and with comorbid diabetes mellitus (DM) it is an even bigger challenge. This article aims to evaluate antidepressants most suitable for patients with depression and comorbid DM.

Initially we searched for randomised, controlled double-blind trials of treatment with antidepressants in depressed with DM but there were only a few studies and many of them were small trials. Thus, we decided to include studies that were not only randomised-controlled trials. In total, we ended up with 18 articles for our purposes.

The combination of depression and DM may be harmful as depression has a strong impact on psychosocial and medical outcomes in patients with DM. Almost all of the trials in this review showed a reduction in depressive symptoms after treatment with an antidepressant in the acute as well as during maintenance phase. It showed that depression improvement had a favourable effect on glycaemic control that was weight independent. Some studies included only subjects with minor depression or with suboptimal-controlled diabetes making it difficult to show an effect.

From these data, we will recommend choosing an selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) if possible to treat a depression among patients with diabetes. If treatment with a tricyclic antidepressant is needed, closer glycaemic monitoring is recommended. Bear in mind that there is a possible risk of hypoglycemia when using SSRIs. Agomelatine and bupropion have shown promising results, but need to be investigated in more trials.

Although considerable evidence supports the efficacy of exercise as an antidepressant treatment, critical reviews informing routine practice and future research directions are scarce.

We critically reviewed exercise studies for clinically depressed adults, focussing on the PICOS criteria referred to participants, interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and study designs.

Most studies have not screened their samples for symptom heterogeneity. Also, they have employed heterogeneous exercise interventions and control groups that may lead to an underestimation of the benefits of exercise. In addition, pragmatic trials allowing scalable replication and implementation in routine practice are scarce. Future studies, can consider the research domain criteria as a diagnostic framework, and conduct moderator analyses to identify depressed subgroups with symptomatology and biopsychosocial characteristics associated with differential responses to exercise interventions. The search for biomarkers of the antidepressant responses to exercise should be prioritised. Further, non-physically active comparison groups should be used to minimise treatment cross-overs and thus the underestimation of the effects of exercise interventions. Finally, the use of outcome measures that maintain their validity at low and moderate levels of symptom severity and the development of trials with a pragmatic design are essential.

The current evidence base is fraught with methodological considerations that need to be taken into account in order to increase further our understanding on the impact of exercise as medicine in depression. Future research should include moderator analyses, incorporate biomarker assays, use appropriate control and comparison groups, assess outcomes with psychometrically sensitive measures, and prioritise pragmatic trials towards transition to routine practice.

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disease characterised with seizures. The aetiology of the most generalised epilepsies cannot be explicitly determined and the seizures are pronounced to be genetically determined by disturbances of receptors in central nervous system. Besides, neurotransmitter distributions or other metabolic problems are supposed to involve in epileptogenesis. Lack of adequate data about pharmacological agents that have antiepileptogenic effects point to need of research on this field. Thus, in this review, inflammatory aspects of epileptogenesis has been focussed via considering several concepts like role of immune system, blood–brain barrier and antibody involvement in epileptogenesis.

We conducted an evidence-based review of the literatures in order to evaluate the possible participation of inflammatory processes to epileptogenesis and also, promising agents which are effective to these processes. We searched PubMed database up to November 2015 with no date restrictions.

In the present review, 163 appropriate articles were included. Obtained data suggests that inflammatory processes participate to epileptogenesis in several ways like affecting fibroblast growth factor-2 and tropomyosin receptor kinase B signalling pathways, detrimental proinflammatory pathways [such as the interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β)–interleukin-1 receptor type 1 (IL-1R1) system], mammalian target of rapamycin pathway, microglial activities, release of glial inflammatory proteins (such as macrophage inflammatory protein, interleukin 6, C–C motif ligand 2 and IL-1β), adhesion molecules that are suggested to function in signalling pathways between neurons and microglia and also linkage between these molecules and proinflammatory cytokines.

The literature research indicated that inflammation is a part of epileptogenesis. For this reason, further studies are necessary for assessing agents that will be effective in clinical use for therapeutic treatment of epileptogenesis.

l-theanine, an amino acid uniquely contained in green tea (Camellia sinensis), has been suggested to have various psychotropic effects. This study aimed to examine whether l-theanine is effective for patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) in an open-label clinical trial.

Subjects were 20 patients with MDD (four males; mean age: 41.0±14.1 years, 16 females; 42.9±12.0 years). l-theanine (250 mg/day) was added to the current medication of each participant for 8 weeks. Symptoms and cognitive functions were assessed at baseline, 4, and 8 weeks after l-theanine administration by the 21-item version of the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD-21), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Stroop test, and Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia (BACS).

HAMD-21 score was reduced after l-theanine administration (p=0.007). This reduction was observed in unremitted patients (HAMD-21>7; p=0.004) at baseline. Anxiety-trait scores decreased after l-theanine administration (p=0.012) in the STAI test. PSQI scores also decreased after l-theanine administration (p=0.030) in the unremitted patients at baseline. Regarding cognitive functions, response latency (p=0.001) and error rate (p=0.036) decreased in the Stroop test, and verbal memory (p=0.005) and executive function (p=0.016) were enhanced in the BACS test after l-theanine administration.

Our study suggests that chronic (8-week) l-theanine administration is safe and has multiple beneficial effects on depressive symptoms, anxiety, sleep disturbance and cognitive impairments in patients with MDD. However, since this is an open-label study, placebo-controlled studies are required to consolidate the effects.

To evaluate the efficacy of transcranially applied pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) on functional impairments and symptom severity in multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) patients.

The study was conducted as a nationwide trial in Denmark using a randomised, parallel-group, double-blind and placebo-controlled design. Sample size was estimated at 40 participants. Eligibility criteria were age 18–75 years and fulfilment of the MCS case criteria. Participants received either PEMF or placebo PEMF (no stimulation) applied transcranially for 6 weeks. The primary outcome was the Life Impact Scale (LIS) of the Quick Environmental Exposure and Sensitivity Inventory (QEESI). Secondary outcomes were the Symptom Severity Scale (SSS) and the Chemical Intolerance Scale of QEESI.

A total of 39 participants were randomised to PEMF or placebo treatment. No significant difference was observed on QEESI LIS between groups with a mean change score of −5.9 in the PEMF group compared with −1.5 in the placebo group (p=0.35, effect size=−0.31). However, a significant decrease was detected on QEESI SSS within and between groups with a mean change score of −11.3 in the PEMF group compared with −3.2 in the placebo group (p=0.03, effect size=−0.60).

PEMF treatment of 6 weeks showed no effect on functional impairments in MCS. However, a significant decrease in symptom severity was observed.

Co-morbid depression with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is often treatment resistant. In developing a preclinical model of treatment-resistant depression (TRD), we combined animal models of depression and PTSD to produce an animal with more severe as well as treatment-resistant depressive-like behaviours.

Male Flinders sensitive line (FSL) rats, a genetic animal model of depression, were exposed to a stress re-stress model of PTSD [time-dependent sensitisation (TDS)] and compared with stress-naive controls. Seven days after TDS stress, depressive-like and coping behaviours as well as hippocampal and cortical noradrenaline (NA) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5HIAA) levels were analysed. Response to sub-chronic imipramine treatment (IMI; 10 mg/kg s.c.×7 days) was subsequently studied.

FSL rats demonstrated bio-behavioural characteristics of depression. Exposure to TDS stress in FSL rats correlated negatively with weight gain, while demonstrating reduced swimming behaviour and increased immobility versus unstressed FSL rats. IMI significantly reversed depressive-like (immobility) behaviour and enhanced active coping behaviour (swimming and climbing) in FSL rats. The latter was significantly attenuated in FSL rats exposed to TDS versus unstressed FSL rats. IMI reversed reduced 5HIAA levels in unstressed FSL rats, whereas exposure to TDS negated this effect. Lowered NA levels in FSL rats were sustained after TDS with IMI significantly reversing this in the hippocampus.

Combining a gene-X-environment model of depression with a PTSD paradigm produces exaggerated depressive-like symptoms that display an attenuated response to antidepressant treatment. This work confirms combining FSL rats with TDS exposure as a putative animal model of TRD.

The exact pathophysiology of bipolar disorder (BD) is not yet fully understood, and there are many questions in this area which should be answered. This review aims to discuss the roles of glial cells in the pathophysiology of BD and their contribution to the mechanism of action of mood-stabilising drugs.

We critically reviewed the most recent advances regarding glial cell roles in the pathophysiology and treatment of BD and the neuroprotective and neurotrophic effects of these cells.

Postmortem studies revealed a decrease in the glial cell number or density in the specific layers of prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in the patients with BD, whereas there was no difference in other brain regions, such as entorhinal cortex, amygdala and hippocampus. Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes were the most important glial types that were responsible for the glial reduction, but microglia activation rather than loss may be implicated in BD. The decreased number or density of glial cells may contribute to the pathological changes observed in neurons in the patients with BD. Alteration of specific neurotrophic factors such as glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and S100B may be an important feature of BD. Glial cells mediate the therapeutic effects of mood-stabilising agents in the treatment of BD.

Recent studies provide important evidence on the impairment of glial cells in the pathophysiology and treatment of BD. However, future controlled studies are necessary to elucidate different aspects of glial cells contribution to BD, and the mechanism of action of mood-stabilising drugs.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is one of the most efficient treatments for severe major depression, but some patients suffer from retrograde memory loss after treatment. Electroconvulsive seizures (ECS), an animal model of ECT, have repeatedly been shown to increase hippocampal neurogenesis, and multiple ECS treatments cause retrograde amnesia in hippocampus-dependent memory tasks. Since recent studies propose that addition of newborn hippocampal neurons might degrade existing memories, we investigated whether the memory impairment after multiple ECS treatments is a cumulative effect of repeated treatments, or if it is the result of a delayed effect after a single ECS.

We used the hippocampus-dependent memory task Morris water maze (MWM) to evaluate spatial memory. Rats were exposed to an 8-day training paradigm before receiving either a single ECS or sham treatment and tested in the MWM 24 h, 72 h, or 7 days after this treatment, or multiple (four) ECS or sham treatments and tested 7 days after the first treatment.

A single ECS treatment was not sufficient to cause retrograde amnesia whereas multiple ECS treatments strongly disrupted spatial memory in the MWM.

The retrograde amnesia after multiple ECS is a cumulative effect of repeated treatments rather than a delayed effect after a single ECS.

The cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) are proposed to mediate opposite behavioural responses. Their common denominator is the endocannabinoid ligand anandamide (AEA), which is believed to mediate antidepressant-like effect via CB1-R stimulation and depressive-like effect via TRPV1 activation. This is supposed to explain the bell-shaped dose-response curve for anandamide in preclinical models.

We investigated this assumption by administering the dual inhibitor of AEA hydrolysis and TRPV1 activation N-arachidonoyl-serotonin (AA-5HT) into the medial prefrontal cortex of rats. AA-5HT was given in three different doses (0.125, 0.250, 0.500 nmol/0.4 µl/side) and rat behaviour was assessed in the forced swim test.

Our results show significant antidepressant-like effect of AA-5HT (0.250 nmol) but no effects of low or high doses. The effect of 0.250 nmol AA-5HT was partially attenuated when coadministering the inverse CB1-agonist rimonabant (1.6 µg).

A 0.250 nmol of AA-5HT administration into the medial prefrontal cortex induced a significant antidepressant-like effect that was partially attenuated by locally blocking CB1-receptor.

To investigate whether specific symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) can help identify ADHD patients with mind wandering.

Subjects were adults ages 18–55 of both sexes (n=41) who completed the Mind-Wandering Questionnaire (MWQ) and the ADHD module of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children Epidemiologic Version. We used Spearman’s rank correlation and Pearson’s χ2 analyses to examine associations between the ADHD module and the MWQ and receiver operator characteristic (ROC) analyses to evaluate the diagnostic efficiency of the ADHD module.

Out of the three ADHD domains, the inattentive ADHD scores had the strongest association with the MWQ (total: r s=0.34, df=39, p=0.03; inattentive: r s=0.38, df=39, p=0.02; Hyperactive: r s=0.17, df=39, p=0.28). Correlation analyses between individual items on the ADHD module and the MWQ showed that two inattention items (‘failure to pay attention to detail’ and ‘trouble following instructions’) were positively associated with total scores on the MWQ (p=0.02). These two inattention items had the strongest association with the MWQ (r s=0.45, df=38, p=0.004). ROC analyses showed that the combined score of the two significant inattention items had the highest efficiency (AUC=0.71) in classifying high-level mind wanderers as defined by scores greater than the median split on the MWQ. The combined score of the two inattention items best identified high-level mind wanderers.

Results suggest a way to operationalise mind wandering using the symptoms of ADHD.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) displays high co-morbidity with major depression and treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Earlier work demonstrated exaggerated depressive-like symptoms in a gene×environment model of TRD and an abrogated response to imipramine. We extended the investigation by studying the behavioural and monoaminergic response to multiple antidepressants, viz. venlafaxine and ketamine with/without imipramine.

Male Flinders sensitive line (FSL) rats, a genetic model of depression, were exposed to a time-dependent sensitisation (TDS) model of PTSD and compared with stress naive controls. 7 days after the TDS procedures, immobility and coping (swimming and climbing), behaviours in the forced swim test (FST) as well as hippocampal and cortical 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5HIAA) and noradrenaline (NA) levels were analysed. Response to imipramine, venlafaxine and ketamine treatment (all 10 mg/kg×7 days) alone and in combination were subsequently studied.

TDS exacerbated depressive-like behaviour of FSL rats in the FST. Imipramine, venlafaxine and ketamine were ineffective as monotherapy in TDS-exposed FSL rats. However, combining imipramine with either venlafaxine or ketamine resulted in significant anti-immobility effects and enhanced coping behaviours. Only ketamine+imipramine (frontal-cortical 5HIAA and NA), ketamine alone (frontal-cortical and hippocampal NA) and venlafaxine+imipramine (frontal-cortical NA) altered monoamine responses versus untreated TDS-exposed FSL rats.

Exposure of FSL rats to TDS inhibits antidepressant response at behavioural and neurochemical levels. Congruent with TRD, imipramine plus venlafaxine or ketamine overcame treatment resistance in these animals. These data further support the hypothesis that exposure of FSL rats to a PTSD-like paradigm produces a valid animal model of TRD and warrants further investigation.

To investigate the relationship between the severities of symptom dimensions in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and white matter alterations.

We applied tract-based spatial statistics for diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) acquired by 3T magnetic resonance imaging. First, we compared fractional anisotropy (FA) between 20 OCD patients and 30 healthy controls (HC). Then, applying whole brain analysis, we searched the brain regions showing correlations between the severities of symptom dimensions assessed by Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised and FA in all participants. Finally, we calculated the correlations between the six symptom dimensions and multiple DTI measures [FA, axial diffusivity (AD), radial diffusivity (RD), mean diffusivity (MD)] in a region-of-interest (ROI) analysis and explored the differences between OCD patients and HC.

There were no between-group differences in FA or brain region correlations between the severities of symptom dimensions and FA in any of the participants. ROI analysis revealed negative correlations between checking severity and left inferior frontal gyrus white matter and left middle temporal gyrus white matter and a positive correlation between ordering severity and right precuneus in FA in OCD compared with HC. We also found negative correlations between ordering severity and right precuneus in RD, between obsessing severities and right supramarginal gyrus in AD and MD, and between hoarding severity and right insular gyrus in AD.

Our study supported the hypothesis that the severities of respective symptom dimensions are associated with different patterns of white matter alterations.

Research findings made over the last few years have highlighted the important role of creatine (Cr) in health and disease. However, limited information is available regarding the effect of Cr supplementation on cognation. Present study was designed to determine the effect of variable doses of Cr (1% and 3%) on selected parameters of female albino mice behaviour.

Following weaning, on 20th postnatal day, female albino mice were divided into three groups on the basis of dietary supplementation. Control group were was fed with normal rodent diet, whereas treated groups received diet supplemented with 1% and 3% Creatine monohydrate (Ssniff, Germany) for 10 weeks. Morris water maze (MWM), Rota rod and open field (OF) tests were carried out at the end of diet supplementation for neurofunctional assessment in all the groups.

Data analysis showed that Cr supplementation did not affect the muscular activity and during rota rod test as well as locomotor and exploratory behaviour during OF test. Results of MWM probe trial indicated that mice supplemented with 3% Cr had significantly more entries in platform area than other two treatments (p=0.03) indicating improved spatial memory. Body weight remained unaffected (p>0.05) when compared between three experimental treatments.

Female mice supplemented with 3% Cr showed improved spatial memory than mice fed on 1% Cr-supplemented diet and mice on normal rodent diet.

Review efficacy, safety, and tolerability of brexpiprazole in patients with schizophrenia in short- and long-term phase 3 studies.

Patients experiencing a current exacerbation of schizophrenia received brexpiprazole in two fixed-dose (2 and 4 mg), 6-week, placebo-controlled studies, one flexible-dose (2–4 mg), 6-week, placebo-control and active reference study, and one fixed-dose (1–4 mg), 52-week, placebo-controlled maintenance study.

The efficacy of brexpiprazole was demonstrated in the two short-term fixed-dose studies with statistically significant improvements from baseline in Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) total score compared with placebo. In the flexible-dose short-term study, treatment with brexpiprazole resulted in numerically greater improvements in PANSS total score than with placebo that approached statistical significance (p=0.056). A meta-analysis of these short-term studies showed a mean change in PANSS total score of −20.1, reflecting a clinically meaningful reduction in symptoms. In the maintenance study, brexpiprazole had a beneficial effect relative to placebo on time to exacerbation of psychotic symptoms/impending relapse (p<0.0001). For all studies, brexpiprazole demonstrated clinically meaningful treatment effects on the Personal and Social Performance scale. Brexpiprazole had a favourable safety profile, with a relatively low prevalence of activating and sedating side effects. Weight gain in the short-term studies was ~1 kg greater than placebo. No safety concerns were observed with brexpiprazole in laboratory values, electrocardiogram, or vital signs.

Overall, the results indicate brexpiprazole, used either short-term or as part of a long-term maintenance treatment programme, is an efficacious therapy option in adults with schizophrenia and has a favourable safety/tolerability profile.