Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-tj2md Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T04:13:16.983Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 56 - Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Strokes

from Section 6 - Systemic Disorders That Also Involve the Cerebrovascular System

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 June 2018

Louis Caplan
Affiliation:
Beth Israel-Deaconess Medical Center, Boston
José Biller
Affiliation:
Loyola University Stritch School of Medicine, Chicago
Get access

Summary

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Crohn’s & Colitis Foundation of America. The facts about inflammatory bowel diseases. (Accessed January 7, 2016, at www.crohnscolitisfoundation.org/assets/pdfs/updatedibdfactbook.pdf). See also www.cdc.gov/ibd/ibd-epidemiology.htm.Google Scholar
Kappelman, MD, Moore, KR, Allen, JK, and Cook, SF. Recent trends in the prevalence of Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis in a commercially insured US population. Dig Dis Sci. 2013;58:519–25.Google Scholar
Andres, PG and Friedman, LS. Epidemiology and the natural course of inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology Clinics of North America. 1999;28:255–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sartor, RB. Mechanisms of disease: Pathogenesis of Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;3:390407.Google Scholar
Gevers, D, Kugathasan, S, Denson, LA, et al. The treatment-naive microbiome in new-onset Crohn’s disease. Cell Host Microbe. 2014;15:382–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sankaran-Walters, S, Macal, M, Grishina, I, et al. Sex differences matter in the gut: Effect on mucosal immune activation and inflammation. Biol Sex Differ. 2013;4:10.Google Scholar
Levine, JB and Lukawski-Trubish, D. Extraintestinal considerations in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterol Clin N Am. 1995;24:633–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manzino, M and Tomasina, C. Infarti cerebrali multipli in corso di morbo di Crohn. Descrizione di un caso. Minerva Medica. 1996;87:253–5.Google Scholar
Lossos, A, River, Y, Eliakim, A, and Steiner, I. Neurologic aspects of inflammatory bowel disease. Neurology. 1995;45:416–21.Google Scholar
Bargen, JA and Barker, NW. Extensive arterial and venous thrombosis complicating chronic ulcerative colitis. Arch Int Med. 1936;58:1731.Google Scholar
Graef, V. Venous thrombosis occurring in nonspecific ulcerative colitis. Arch Int Med. 1966;117:377382.Google Scholar
Talbot, RW, Heppell, J, Dozois, RR, and Beart, RW Jr. Vascular complications of inflammatory bowel disease. Mayo Clin Proc. 1986;61:140–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rickets, WE and Palmer WL. Complications of chronic non-specific ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology. 1946;7:5566.Google Scholar
Jackson, LM, O’Gorman, PJ, O’Connell, J, et al. Thrombosis in inflammatory bowel disease: Clinical setting, procoagulant profile and factor V Leiden. Qjm. 1997;90:183–8.Google Scholar
Grip, O, Svensson, PJ, and Lindgren, S. Inflammatory bowel disease promotes venous thrombosis earlier in life. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2000;35:619–23.Google Scholar
Scarpa, M, Pilon, F, Pengo, V, et al. Deep venous thrombosis after surgery for inflammatory bowel disease: Is standard dose low molecular weight heparin prophylaxis enough? World J Surg. 2010;34:1629–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merrill, A and Millham, F. Increased risk of postoperative deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: A study of National Surgical Quality Improvement Program patients. Arch Surg. 2012;147:120–4.Google Scholar
Grainge, MJ, West, J, and Card, TR. Venous thromboembolism during active disease and remission in inflammatory bowel disease: A cohort study. Lancet. 2010;375:657–63.Google ScholarPubMed
Nguyen, GC, Bernstein, CN, Bitton, A, et al. Consensus statements on the risk, prevention, and treatment of venous thromboembolism in inflammatory bowel disease: Canadian Association of Gastroenterology. Gastroenterology. 2014;146:835–48.Google Scholar
Harrison, MJ and Truelove, SC. Cerebral venous thrombosis as a complication of ulcerative colitis. Am J Dig Dis. 1967;12:1025–8.Google Scholar
Cognat, E, Crassard, I, Denier, C, Vahedi, K, and Bousser, MG. Cerebral venous thrombosis in inflammatory bowel diseases: Eight cases and literature review. Int J Stroke. 2011;6:487–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johns, DR. Cerebrovascular complications of inflammatory bowel disease. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 1991;86:367–70.Google Scholar
Kim, I, Min, KH, Yeo, M, et al. Unusual case of cerebral venous thrombosis in patient with Crohn’s disease. Case Rep Neurol. 2015;7:115–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverstein, A and Present, DH. Cerebrovascular occlusions in relatively young patients with regional enteritis. JAMA. 1971;215:976–7.Google Scholar
Halliday, CE and Farthing, MJ. Arterial thrombosis in Crohn’s disease. Med J Aust. 1988;149:559–60.Google Scholar
Mevorach, D, Goldberg, Y, Gomori, JM, and Rachmilewitz, D. Antiphospholipid syndrome manifested by ischemic stroke in a patient with Crohn’s disease. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1996;22:141–3.Google Scholar
Ennaifer, R, Moussa, A, Mouelhi, L, et al. Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis as presenting feature of ulcerative colitis. Acta Gastroenterol Belg. 2009;72:350–3.Google Scholar
Papakonstantinou, AS, Stratopoulos, C, Terzis, I, et al. Ulcerative colitis and acute stroke: Two rare complications after Mason’s vertical banded gastroplasty for treatment of morbid obesity. Obes Surg. 1999;9:502–5.Google Scholar
Joshi, D, Dickel, T, Aga, R, and Smith-Laing, G. Stroke in inflammatory bowel disease: A report of two cases and review of the literature. Thromb J. 2008;6:2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogawa, E, Sakakibara, R, Yoshimatsu, Y, et al. Crohn’s disease and stroke in a young adult. Intern Med. 2011;50:2407–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Penix, LP. Ischemic strokes secondary to vitamin B12 deficiency-induced hyperhomocystinemia. Neurology. 1998;51:622–4.Google Scholar
Schneiderman, JH, Sharpe, JA, and Sutton, DM. Cerebral and retinal vascular complications of inflammatory bowel disease. Ann Neurol. 1979;5:331–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaban, A, Hymel, B, Chavez-Keatts, M, Karlitz, JJ, and Martin-Schild, S. Recurrent posterior strokes in inflammatory bowel disease patients. Gastroenterol Res Pract. 2015;2015:672460.Google Scholar
Dare, B and Byrne, E. Giant cell arteritis. A five-year review of biopsy-proven cases in a teaching hospital. Med J Aust. 1980;1:372–3.Google Scholar
Rustagi, T and Majumder, S. Crohn’s–Takayasu’s arteritis overlap with hypercoagulability: An optimal milieu for ischemic stroke. J Dig Dis. 2011;12:142–6.Google Scholar
Farrant, M, Mason, JC, Wong, NA, and Longman, RJ. Takayasu’s arteritis following Crohn’s disease in a young woman: any evidence for a common pathogenesis? World J Gastroenterol. 2008;14:4087–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reny, JL, Paul, JF, Lefebvre, C, et al. Association of Takayasu’s arteritis and Crohn’s disease. Results of a study on 44 Takayasu patients and review of the literature. Ann Med Interne (Paris). 2003;154:8590.Google Scholar
Kusunoki, R, Ishihara, S, Sato, M, et al. Rare case of Takayasu’s arteritis associated with Crohn’s disease. Intern Med. 2011;50:1581–5.Google Scholar
Mayeux, R and Fahn, S. Strokes and ulcerative colitis. Neurology. 1978;28:571–4.Google Scholar
Hilton-Jones, D and Warlow, CP. The causes of stroke in the young. J Neurol. 1985;232:137–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paradis, K, Bernstein, ML, and Adelson, JW. Thrombosis as a complication of inflammatory bowel disease in children: A report of four cases. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1985;4:659–62.Google Scholar
Prior, A, Strang, FA, and Whorwell, PJ. Internal carotid artery occlusion in association with Crohn’s disease. Dig Dis Sci. 1987;32:1047–50.Google Scholar
Lloyd-Still, JD and Tomasi, L. Neurovascular and thromboembolic complications of inflammatory bowel disease in childhood. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1989;9:461–6.Google Scholar
Jorens, PG, Hermans, CR, Haber, I, et al. Acquired protein C and S deficiency, inflammatory bowel disease and cerebral arterial thrombosis. Blut. 1990;61:307–10.Google Scholar
Jorens, PG, Delvigne, CR, Hermans, CR, et al. Cerebral arterial thrombosis preceding ulcerative colitis. Stroke. 1991;22:1212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karacostas, D, Mavromatis, J, Artemis, K, and Milonas, I. Hemorrhagic cerebral infarct and ulcerative colitis. A case report. Funct Neurol. 1991;6:181–4.Google Scholar
Fukuhara, T, Tsuchida, S, Kinugasa, K, and Ohmoto, T. A case of pontine lacunar infarction with ulcerative colitis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 1993;95:159–62.Google Scholar
Tomomasa, T, Itoh, K, Matsui, A, et al. An infant with ulcerative colitis complicated by endocarditis and cerebral infarction. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1993;17:323–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gormally, SM, Bourke, W, Kierse, B, et al. Isolated cerebral thrombo-embolism and Crohn disease. Eur J Pediatr. 1995;154:815–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keene, DL, Matzinger, MA, Jacob, PJ, and Humphreys, P. Cerebral vascular events associated with ulcerative colitis in children. Pediatr Neurol. 2001;24:238–43.Google Scholar
Chetri, K, Ghoshal, UC, Somani, SK, et al. Common carotid artery occlusion causing cerebral infarction in ulcerative colitis. Indian J Gastroenterol. 2002;21:122–3.Google ScholarPubMed
Younes-Mhenni, S, Derex, L, Berruyer, M, et al. Large-artery stroke in a young patient with Crohn’s disease. Role of vitamin B6 deficiency-induced hyperhomocysteinemia. J Neurol Sci. 2004;221:113–5.Google Scholar
Schluter, A, Krasnianski, M, Krivokuca, M, et al. Magnetic resonance angiography in a patient with Crohn’s disease associated cerebral vasculitis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2004;106:110–3.Google Scholar
Nogami, H, Iiai, T, Maruyama, S, Tani, T, and Hatakeyama, K. Common carotid arterial thrombosis associated with ulcerative colitis. World J Gastroenterol. 2007;13:1755–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freilinger, T, Riedel, E, Holtmannspotter, M, Dichgans, M, and Peters, N. Ischemic stroke and peripheral arterial thromboembolism in a patient with Crohn’s disease: A case presentation. J Neurol Sci. 2008;266:177–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Standridge, S and de los Reyes, E. Inflammatory bowel disease and cerebrovascular arterial and venous thromboembolic events in 4 pediatric patients: A case series and review of the literature. J Child Neurol. 2008;23:5966.Google Scholar
Harris, D. Left middle cerebral artery infarct in a young man with Crohn’s disease. J R Soc Med. 2009;102:443–4.Google Scholar
Lafitte, M, Debruxelles, S, Sibon, I, Rouanet, F, and Couffinhal, T. Cerebral embolism from subclinical carotid atherosclerotic lesion in a young woman with inflammatory Crohn disease. Eur Heart J. 2009;30:575.Google Scholar
Barclay, AR, Keightley, JM, Horrocks, I, et al. Cerebral thromboembolic events in pediatric patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2010;16:677–83.Google Scholar
Lange, MC, Zamproni, LN, Braatz, V, et al. Ischemic stroke in a patient with Crohn’s disease: A confirmed paradoxical embolism mechanism. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2010;68:651–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soong, MM and Carroll, A. Cerebral venous thrombosis presenting as a complication of inflammatory bowel disease. Ir J Med Sci. 2010;179:127–9.Google Scholar
Calabro, RS, Pezzini, A, Gervasi, G, Pollicino, P, and Bramanti, P. Recurrent ischemic stroke in a patient with ulcerative colitis and high levels of lipoprotein (a). Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2011;22:549–51.Google Scholar
Chentanez, T, Khawcharoenporn, T, Chokrungvaranon, N, and Joyner, J. Cardiobacterium hominis endocarditis presenting as acute embolic stroke: A case report and review of the literature. Heart Lung. 2011;40:262–9.Google Scholar
Houissa, F, Salem, M, Bouzaidi, S, et al. Cerebral thrombosis in inflammatory bowel disease: A report of four cases. J Crohns Colitis. 2011;5:249–52.Google Scholar
Brosch, JR and Janicki, MJ. Intra-arterial thrombolysis as an ideal treatment for inflammatory bowel disease related thromboembolic stroke: A case report and review. Int J Neurosci. 2012;122:541–4.Google Scholar
Richard, S, Mione, G, Perrin, J, et al. Internal carotid thrombus in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: Two cases. World J Gastroenterol. 2013;19:773–5.Google Scholar
Casella, G, Cortelezzi, CC, Marialuisa, D, et al. Cerebral arterial thrombosis in ulcerative colitis. Case Rep Gastrointest Med. 2013;2013:679147.Google Scholar
Ha, C, Magowan, S, Accortt, NA, Chen, J, and Stone, CD. Risk of arterial thrombotic events in inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009;104:1445–51.Google Scholar
Bernstein, CN, Wajda, A, and Blanchard, JF. The incidence of arterial thromboembolic diseases in inflammatory bowel disease: A population-based study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;6:41–5.Google Scholar
Andersohn, F, Waring, M, and Garbe, E. Risk of ischemic stroke in patients with Crohn’s disease: A population-based nested case-control study. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2010;16:1387–92.Google Scholar
Kellen, E, Hemelt, M, Broberg, K, et al. Pooled analysis and meta-analysis of the glutathione S-transferase P1 Ile 105Val polymorphism and bladder cancer: A HuGE-GSEC review. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;165:1221–30.Google Scholar
Keller, JJ, Wang, J, Huang, YL, et al. Increased risk of stroke among patients with ulcerative colitis: A population-based matched cohort study. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2014;29:805–12.Google Scholar
Zöller, B, Li, X, Sundquist, J, and Sundquist, K. Risk of subsequent ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke in patients hospitalized for immune-mediated diseases: A nationwide follow-up study from Sweden. BMC Neurol. 2012;12:41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kristensen, SL, Ahlehoff, O, Lindhardsen, J, et al. Disease activity in inflammatory bowel disease is associated with increased risk of myocardial infarction, stroke and cardiovascular death: A Danish nationwide cohort study. PLoS One. 2013;8:e56944.Google Scholar
Huang, WS, Tseng, CH, Chen, PC, et al. Inflammatory bowel diseases increase future ischemic stroke risk: A Taiwanese population-based retrospective cohort study. Eur J Intern Med. 2014;25:561–5.Google Scholar
Keller, JJ, Wang, J, Hwang, YL, et al. Increased risk of stroke among patients with Crohn’s disease: A population-based matched cohort study. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2015;30:645–53.Google Scholar
Singh, S, Singh, H, Loftus, EV Jr., and Pardi, DS. Risk of cerebrovascular accidents and ischemic heart disease in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014;12:382–93 e1: quiz e22.Google Scholar
Stouthard, JM, Levi, M, Hack, CE, et al. Interleukin-6 stimulates coagulation, not fibrinolysis, in humans. Thromb Haemost. 1996;76:738–42.Google Scholar
Yoshida, H, Russell, J, Senchenkova, EY, Almeida Paula, LD, and Granger, DN. Interleukin-1 beta mediates the extra-intestinal thrombosis associated with experimental colitis. Am J Pathol. 2010;177:2774–81.Google Scholar
Yoshida, H, Yilmaz, CE, and Granger, DN. Role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in the extraintestinal thrombosis associated with colonic inflammation. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2011;17:2217–23.Google Scholar
Koutroubakis, IE. The relationship between coagulation state and inflammatory bowel disease: Current understanding and clinical implications. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2015;11:479–88.Google Scholar
Tabibian, JH and Streiff, MB. Inflammatory bowel disease-associated thromboembolism: A systematic review of outcomes with anticoagulation versus catheter-directed thrombolysis. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2012;18:161–71.Google Scholar
Harries, AD, Fitzsimons, E, Fifield, R, Dew, MJ, and Rhoades, J. Platelet count: A simple measure of activity in Crohn’s disease. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1983;286:1476.Google Scholar
Gawaz, M, Langer, H, and May, AE. Platelets in inflammation and atherogenesis. J Clin Invest. 2005;115:3378–84.Google Scholar
Danese, S, Papa, A, Saibeni, S, et al. Inflammation and coagulation in inflammatory bowel disease: The clot thickens. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102:174–86.Google Scholar
Hudson, M, Chitolie, A, Hutton, RA, et al. Thrombotic vascular risk factors in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut. 1996;38:733–7.Google Scholar
Dolapcioglu, C, Soylu, A, Kendir, T, et al. Coagulation parameters in inflammatory bowel disease. Int J Clin Exp Med. 2014;7:1442–8.Google Scholar
Alkim, H, Ayaz, S, Alkim, C, Ulker, A, and Sahin, B. Continuous active state of coagulation system in patients with nonthrombotic inflammatory bowel disease. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2011;17:600–4.Google Scholar
Edwards, RL, Levine, JB, Green, R, et al. Activation of blood coagulation in Crohn’s disease. Increased plasma fibrinopeptide A levels and enhanced generation of monocyte tissue factor activity. Gastroenterology. 1987;92:329–37.Google Scholar
Liebman, HA, Kashani, N, Sutherland, D, McGehee, W, and Kam, AL. The factor V Leiden mutation increases the risk of venous thrombosis in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. [See comment] Gastroenterology. 1998;115:830–4.Google Scholar
Guedon, C, Le Cam-Duchez, V, Lalaude, O, et al. Prothrombotic inherited abnormalities other than factor V Leiden mutation do not play a role in venous thrombosis in inflammatory bowel disease. [See comment] Am J Gastroenterol. 2001;96:1448–54.Google Scholar
Liang, J, Wu, S, Feng, B, et al. Factor V Leiden and inflammatory bowel disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Gastroenterol. 2011;46:1158–66.Google Scholar
Zhong, M, Dong, XW, Zheng, Q, Tong, JL, and Ran, ZH. Factor V Leiden and thrombosis in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): A meta-analysis. Thromb Res. 2011;128:403–9.Google Scholar
Vaezi, MF, Rustagi, PK, and Elson, CO. Transient protein S deficiency associated with cerebral venous thrombosis in active ulcerative colitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 1995;90:313–5.Google Scholar
Yuerlki, B, Aksoy, D, Aybar, M, et al. The search for a common thrombophilic state during the active state of inflammatory bowel disease. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2006;40:809–13.Google Scholar
Mevorach, D, Goldberg, Y, Gomori, JM, and Rachmilewitz, D. Antiphospholipid syndrome manifested by ischemic stroke in a patient with Crohn’s disease. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1996;22:141–3.Google Scholar
Koutroubakis, IE, Petinaki, E, Anagnostopoulou, E, et al. Anti-cardiolipin and anti-beta2-glycoprotein 1 antibodies in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Digest Dis Sci. 1998;43:2507–12.Google Scholar
Romagnuolo, J, Fedorak, RN, Dias, VC, Bamforth, F, and Teltscher, M. Hyperhomocysteinemia and inflammatory bowel disease: Prevalence and predictors in a cross-sectional study. [See comment] Am J Gastroenterol. 2001;96:2143–9.Google Scholar
Oldenburg, B, Fijnheer, R, van der Griend, R, vanBerge-Henegouwen, GP, and Koningsberger, JC. Homocysteine in inflammatory bowel disease: A risk factor for thromboembolic complications? Am J Gastroenterol. 2000;95:2825–30.Google Scholar
Bjerregaard, LT, Nederby, NJ, Fredholm, L, et al. Hyperhomocysteinaemia, coagulation pathway activation and thrombophilia in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2002;37:62–7.Google Scholar
Chang, TR, Albright, KC, Boehme, AK, et al. Factor VIII in the setting of acute ischemic stroke among patients with suspected hypercoagulable state. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2014;20:124–8.Google Scholar
Lam, A, Borda, IT, Inwood, MJ, and Thomson, S. Coagulation studies in ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology. 1975;68:245–51.Google Scholar
Kume, K, Yamasaki, M, Tashiro, M, Yoshikawa, I, and Otsuki, M. Activations of coagulation and fibrinolysis secondary to bowel inflammation in patients with ulcerative colitis. Intern Med. 2007;46:1323–9.Google Scholar
Payzin, B, Adakan, FY, Yalcin, HC, et al. Natural coagulation inhibitory proteins and activated protein C resistance in Turkish patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Turk J Gastroenterol. 2006;17:183–90.Google Scholar
Gris, JC, Schved, JF, Raffanel, C, et al. Impaired fibrinolytic capacity in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Thromb Haemost. 1990;63:472–5.Google Scholar
Saibeni, S, Ciscato, C, Vecchi, M, et al. Antibodies to tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: High prevalence, interactions with functional domains of t-PA and possible implications in thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost. 2006;4:1510–6.Google Scholar
Koutroubakis, IE, Sfiridaki, A, Tsiolakidou, G, et al. Plasma thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 levels in inflammatory bowel disease. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;20:912–6.Google Scholar
Owczarek, D, Undas, A, Foley, JH, et al. Activated thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFIa) is associated with inflammatory markers in inflammatory bowel diseases. TAFIa level in patients with IBD. J Crohns Colitis. 2012;6:1320.Google Scholar
Hansson, GK. Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1685–95.Google Scholar
Theocharidou, E, Gossios, TD, Griva, T, et al. Is there an association between inflammatory bowel diseases and carotid intima–media thickness? Preliminary data. Angiology. 2014;65:543–50.Google Scholar
Zanoli, L, Cannavo, M, Rastelli, S, et al. Arterial stiffness is increased in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. J Hypertens. 2012;30:1775–81.Google Scholar
Aviles, RJ, Martin, DO, Apperson-Hansen, C, et al. Inflammation as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 2003;108:3006–10.Google Scholar
Engelmann, MD and Svendsen, JH. Inflammation in the genesis and perpetuation of atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J. 2005;26:2083–92.Google Scholar
Issac, TT, Dokainish, H, and Lakkis, NM. Role of inflammation in initiation and perpetuation of atrial fibrillation: A systematic review of the published data. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;50:2021–8.Google Scholar
Pattanshetty, DJ, Anna, K, Gajulapalli, RD, and Sappati-Biyyani, RR. Inflammatory bowel “cardiac” disease: Point prevalence of atrial fibrillation in inflammatory bowel disease population. Saudi J Gastroenterol. 2015;21:325–9.Google Scholar
Kristensen, SL, Lindhardsen, J, Ahlehoff, O, et al. Increased risk of atrial fibrillation and stroke during active stages of inflammatory bowel disease: A nationwide study. Europace. 2014;16:477–84.Google Scholar
Takeuchi, K, Smale, S, Premchand, P, et al. Prevalence and mechanism of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced clinical relapse in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;4:196202.Google Scholar
Ananthakrishnan, AN, Higuchi, LM, Huang, ES, et al. Aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use, and risk for Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156:350–9.Google Scholar
Vinod, J, Vadada, D, Korelitz, BI, et al. The effect of antiplatelet therapy in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2012;46:527–9.Google Scholar
Kohnke, T, Gomolka, B, Bilal, S, et al. Acetylsalicylic acid reduces the severity of dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis and increases the formation of anti-inflammatory lipid mediators. Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:748160.Google Scholar
Shen, J, Ran, ZH, Tong, JL, and Xiao, SD. Meta-analysis: The utility and safety of heparin in the treatment of active ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2007;26:653–63.Google Scholar
Lee, JY, Kim, JS, Kim, JM, et al. Simvastatin inhibits NF-kappaB signaling in intestinal epithelial cells and ameliorates acute murine colitis. Int Immunopharmacol. 2007;7:241–8.Google Scholar
Crockett, SD, Hansen, RA, Sturmer, T, et al. Statins are associated with reduced use of steroids in inflammatory bowel disease: A retrospective cohort study. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2012;18:1048–56.Google Scholar
Tabibian, JH and Roth, BE. Local thrombolysis: A newer approach to treating inflammatory bowel disease-related thromboembolism. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2009;43:391–8.Google Scholar
Ilonczai, P, Toth, J, Toth, L, et al. Catheter-directed thrombolysis in inflammatory bowel diseases: Report of a case. World J Gastroenterol. 2012;18:4791–3.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×