Introduction

The tenth century, sometimes known as the Century of Iron, was inured to violence and tolerant of war, as indeed we still are today. The early peace movement was a special moment in history when all ranks of society, clerical and lay, worked together through institutional channels and family networks, and by a show of power, secular and supernatural, tried to limit local violence. The earliest gatherings were led by bishops, who were also counts, and then later by counts and dukes in cooperation with their bishops.

The peace councils were dramatic events, gathering monks, clergy, nobility, knights, and peasants. Abbots and monks brought the relics of the saints in elaborate processions, miracles often abounding, and on these relics, clergy, warriors, and armed peasants alike swore oaths to maintain the peace, protect unarmed clergy and peasants, and respect the property of the church. Monastic historians chronicled the events, described the miracles of the saints, and preserved the canons of the peace councils. They interpreted the councils as part of a reform movement led by monasteries, such as Cluny.