(i) the crafting and delivery of the parties’ main contentions, known now as ‘statements of case’, but historically referred to as ‘pleadings’;

(ii) the process of amending pleadings;

(iii) addition, etc, of parties;

(iv) contribution;

(v) interpleader proceedings.

(i) they enable the parties to define the essence of their dispute and so facilitate an orderly process, perhaps culminating in a trial;

(ii) they give each party notice of the relevant issues, thereby preventing surprise or ambush tactics, and also satisfying in part the principle of due notice; Lord Millett suggested that this is the primary function of pleadings;

(iii) clear pleadings can prevent a party from inadvertently making a false admission;

(iv) they set procedural parameters which enable other rules to be applied precisely; they offer guidance as to the scope of ‘relevant’ material which must be disclosed during the disclosure process; this remains important even though the scope of disclosure is now circumscribed by the definition of ‘standard’ disclosure in the CPR; pleadings also determine the scope of any subsequent judgment; the doctrine of res judicata prevents the same matter from being heard twice in separate actions;