Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-c4f8m Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T16:23:36.701Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 4 - Classifications of Seizures and Epilepsies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 October 2019

By
Anthony L. Fine ,
Elaine C. Wirrell  and
Katherine C. Nickels
Edited by
Vibhangini S. Wasade  and
Marianna V. Spanaki
Vibhangini S. Wasade
Affiliation:
Henry Ford Medical Group HFHS, Michigan
Marianna V. Spanaki
Affiliation:
Wayne State University, Michigan
Get access

Summary

Epilepsy is amongst the most common of neurological disorders seen in children, with incidence rates ranging from 33.3–82 cases per 100,000 per year.1–4 The incidence is highest in the first year of life, and decreases in the teen years. Epilepsy is clearly focal in onset in approximately two-thirds of pediatric cases and generalized in onset in one-quarter.4 Approximately half of children have no known etiology.4

Type
Chapter
Information
Understanding Epilepsy
A Study Guide for the Boards
 , pp. 58 - 76
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adelow, C, Andell, E, Amark, P, et al. Newly diagnosed single unprovoked seizures and epilepsy in Stockholm, Sweden: first report from the Stockholm Incidence Registry of Epilepsy (SIRE). Epilepsia. 2009;50(5):1094–1101.Google Scholar
Camfield, CS, Camfield, PR, Gordon, K, Wirrell, E, Dooley, JM. Incidence of epilepsy in childhood and adolescence: a population-based study in Nova Scotia from 1977 to 1985. Epilepsia. 1996;37(1):19–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freitag, CM, May, TW, Pfafflin, M, Konig, S, Rating, D. Incidence of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes in children and adolescents: a population-based prospective study in Germany. Epilepsia. 2001;42(8):979–985.Google Scholar
Wirrell, EC, Grossardt, BR, Wong-Kisiel, LC, Nickels, KC. Incidence and classification of new-onset epilepsy and epilepsy syndromes in children in Olmsted County, Minnesota from 1980 to 2004: a population-based study. Epilepsy Res. 2011;95(1–2):110–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brorson, LO, Wranne, L. Long-term prognosis in childhood epilepsy: survival and seizure prognosis. Epilepsia. 1987;28(4):324–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Camfield, P, Camfield, C. Childhood epilepsy: what is the evidence for what we think and what we do? J Child Neurol. 2003;18(4):272–287.Google Scholar
Sillanpaa, M, Schmidt, D. Natural history of treated childhood-onset epilepsy: prospective, long-term population-based study. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 3):617–624.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berg, AT, Rychlik, K, Levy, SR, Testa, FM. Complete remission of childhood-onset epilepsy: stability and prediction over two decades. Brain. 2014;137(Pt 12):3213–3222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wirrell, EC, Wong-Kisiel, LC, Mandrekar, J, Nickels, KC. What predicts enduring intractability in children who appear medically intractable in the first 2 years after diagnosis? Epilepsia. 2013;54(6):1056–1064.Google Scholar
Berg, AT, Shinnar, S, Levy, SR, et al. Defining early seizure outcomes in pediatric epilepsy: the good, the bad and the in-between. Epilepsy Res. 2001;43(1):75–84.Google Scholar
Arts, WF, Geerts, AT, Brouwer, OF, et al. The early prognosis of epilepsy in childhood: the prediction of a poor outcome. The Dutch study of epilepsy in childhood. Epilepsia. 1999;40(6):726–734.Google Scholar
Berg, AT, Langfitt, J, Shinnar, S, et al. How long does it take for partial epilepsy to become intractable? Neurology. 2003;60(2):186–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spooner, CG, Berkovic, SF, Mitchell, LA, Wrennall, JA, Harvey, AS. New-onset temporal lobe epilepsy in children: lesion on MRI predicts poor seizure outcome. Neurology. 2006;67(12):2147–2153.Google Scholar
Camfield, P, Camfield, C. Long-term prognosis for symptomatic (secondarily) generalized epilepsies: a population-based study. Epilepsia. 2007;48(6):1128–1132.Google Scholar
Camfield, C, Camfield, P. Twenty years after childhood-onset symptomatic generalized epilepsy the social outcome is usually dependency or death: a population-based study. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008;50(11):859–863.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dhamija, R, Moseley, BD, Cascino, GD, Wirrell, EC. A population-based study of long-term outcome of epilepsy in childhood with a focal or hemispheric lesion on neuroimaging. Epilepsia. 2011;52(8):1522–1526.Google Scholar
Berg, AT, Testa, FM, Levy, SR. Complete remission in nonsyndromic childhood-onset epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2011;70(4):566–573.Google Scholar
Wirrell, EC, Grossardt, BR, So, EL, Nickels, KC. A population-based study of long-term outcomes of cryptogenic focal epilepsy in childhood: cryptogenic epilepsy is probably not symptomatic epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2011;52(4):738–745.Google Scholar
Wirrell, E, Camfield, C, Camfield, P, Dooley, J. Prognostic significance of failure of the initial antiepileptic drug in children with absence epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2001;42(6):760–763.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Camfield, CS, Camfield, PR. Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy 25 years after seizure onset: a population-based study. Neurology. 2009;73(13):1041–1045.Google Scholar
Wirrell, EC. Benign epilepsy of childhood with centrotemporal spikes. Epilepsia. 1998;39(Suppl 4):S32–41.Google Scholar
Chiron, C, Marchand, MC, Tran, A, et al. Stiripentol in severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy: a randomised placebo-controlled syndrome-dedicated trial. STICLO Study Group. Lancet. 2000;356(9242):1638–1642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howell, KB, McMahon, JM, Carvill, GL, et al. SCN2A encephalopathy: a major cause of epilepsy of infancy with migrating focal seizures. Neurology. 2015;85(11):958–966.Google Scholar
Pearl, PL. Amenable treatable severe pediatric epilepsies. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2016;23(2):158–166.Google Scholar
Toledano, M, Britton, JW, McKeon, A, et al. Utility of an immunotherapy trial in evaluating patients with presumed autoimmune epilepsy. Neurology. 2014;82(18):1578–1586.Google Scholar
Berg, AT, Zelko, FA, Levy, SR, Testa, FM. Age at onset of epilepsy, pharmacoresistance, and cognitive outcomes: a prospective cohort study. Neurology. 2012;79(13):1384–1391.Google Scholar
Bombardieri, R, Pinci, M, Moavero, R, Cerminara, C, Curatolo, P. Early control of seizures improves long-term outcome in children with tuberous sclerosis complex. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2010;14(2):146–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cusmai, R, Moavero, R, Bombardieri, R, Vigevano, F, Curatolo, P. Long-term neurological outcome in children with early-onset epilepsy associated with tuberous sclerosis. Epilepsy Behav. 2011;22(4):735–739.Google Scholar
Shrivastava, A, Kumar, A, Thomas, JD, et al. Association of acute toxic encephalopathy with litchi consumption in an outbreak in Muzaffarpur, India, 2014: a case-control study. Lancet Glob Health. 2017;5(4):e458–e466.Google Scholar
Torres, JR, Falleiros-Arlant, LH, Duenas, L, et al. Congenital and perinatal complications of chikungunya fever: a Latin American experience. Int J Infect Dis. 2016;51:85–88.Google Scholar
Gastaut, H. Classification of the epilepsies: proposal for an international classification. Epilepsia. 1969;10(Suppl):14–21.Google Scholar
Gastaut, H. Clinical and electroencephalographical classification of epileptic seizures. Epilepsia. 1970;11(1):102–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised clinical and electroencephalographic classification of epileptic seizures. Epilepsia. 1981;22(4):489–501.Google Scholar
Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Epilepsia. 1989;30(4):389–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berg, AT, Berkovic, SF, Brodie, MJ, et al. Revised terminology and concepts for organization of seizures and epilepsies: report of the ILAE Commission on Classification and Terminology, 2005–2009. Epilepsia. 2010;51(4):676–685.Google Scholar
Engel, J Jr. Report of the ILAE classification core group. Epilepsia. 2006;47(9):1558–1568.Google Scholar
Fisher, RS, Cross, JH, French, JA, et al. Operational classification of seizure types by the International League Against Epilepsy: Position Paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2017;58(4):522–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheffer, IE, Berkovic, S, Capovilla, G, et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: Position Paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2017;58(4):512–521.Google Scholar
Scheffer, IE, French, J, Hirsch, E, et al. Classification of the epilepsies: new concepts for discussion and debate – Special Report of the ILAE Classification Task Force of the Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia Open. 2016;1(1–2):37–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, RS, Cross, JH, D’Souza, C, et al. Instruction manual for the ILAE 2017 operational classification of seizure types. Epilepsia. 2017;58(4):531–542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berg, AT, Scheffer, IE. New concepts in classification of the epilepsies: entering the 21st century. Epilepsia. 2011;52(6):1058–1062.Google Scholar
Blumenfeld, H, Meador, KJ. Consciousness as a useful concept in epilepsy classification. Epilepsia. 2014;55(8):1145–1150.Google Scholar
Luders, H, Amina, S, Bailey, C, et al. Proposal: different types of alteration and loss of consciousness in epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2014;55(8):1140–1144.Google Scholar
Blume, WT, Luders, HO, Mizrahi, E, et al. Glossary of descriptive terminology for ictal semiology: report of the ILAE Task Force on Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2001;42(9):1212–1218.Google Scholar
Seneviratne, U, Cook, M, D’Souza, W. Focal abnormalities in idiopathic generalized epilepsy: a critical review of the literature. Epilepsia. 2014;55(8):1157–1169.Google Scholar
Lombroso, CT. Consistent EEG focalities detected in subjects with primary generalized epilepsies monitored for two decades. Epilepsia. 1997;38(7):797–812.Google Scholar
Ferrie, CD. Idiopathic generalized epilepsies imitating focal epilepsies. Epilepsia. 2005;46(Suppl 9):91–95.Google Scholar
Holmes, MD, Brown, M, Tucker, DM. Are “generalized” seizures truly generalized? Evidence of localized mesial frontal and frontopolar discharges in absence. Epilepsia. 2004;45(12):1568–1579.Google Scholar
Yeh, SB, Schenck, CH. Sporadic nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy: A consecutive series of 8 cases. Sleep Sci. 2014;7(3):170–177.Google Scholar
Oldani, A, Zucconi, M, Ferini-Strambi, L, Bizzozero, D, Smirne, S. Autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy: electroclinical picture. Epilepsia. 1996;37(10):964–976.Google Scholar
Tinuper, P, Bisulli, F. From nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy to sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy: a 35-year diagnostic challenge. Seizure. 2017;44:87–92.Google Scholar
O’Callaghan, FJ, Edwards, SW, Alber, FD, et al. Safety and effectiveness of hormonal treatment versus hormonal treatment with vigabatrin for infantile spasms (ICISS): a randomised, multicentre, open-label trial. Lancet Neurol. 2017;16(1):33–42.Google Scholar
Montouris, GD, Wheless, JW, Glauser, TA. The efficacy and tolerability of pharmacologic treatment options for Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia. 2014;55(Suppl 4):10–20.Google Scholar
Riikonen, R. Long-term otucome of West syndrome: a study of adults with a history of infantile spasms. Epilepsia. 1996;37(4):367–372.Google Scholar
Genton, P, Velizarova, R, Dravet, C. Dravet syndrome: the long-term outcome. Epilepsia. 2011;52(Suppl 2):44–49.Google Scholar
Kim, HJ, Kim, HD, Lee, JS, et al. Long-term prognosis of patients with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome in recent decades. Epilepsy Res. 2015;110:10–19.Google Scholar
Caraballo, RH, Chamorro, N, Darra, F, Fortini, S, Arroyo, H. Epilepsy with myoclonic atonic seizures: an electroclinical study of 69 patients. Pediatr Neurol. 2013;48(5):355–362.Google Scholar
Van Bogaert, P. Epileptic encephalopathy with continuous spike-waves during slow-wave sleep including Landau-Kleffner syndrome. Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;111:635–640.Google Scholar
Wirrell, EC, Camfield, CS, Camfield, PR, et al. Long-term psychosocial outcome in typical absence epilepsy: sometimes a wolf in sheeps’ clothing. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1997;151(2):152–158.Google Scholar
Baykan, B, Martinez-Juarez, IE, Altindag, EA, Camfield, CS, Camfield, PR. Lifetime prognosis of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2013;28(Suppl 1):S18–24.Google Scholar
Bouma, PA, Bovenkerk, AC, Westendorp, RG, Brouwer, OF. The course of benign partial epilepsy of childhood with centrotemporal spikes: a meta-analysis. Neurology. 1997;48(2):430–437.Google Scholar
Camfield, CS, Camfield, PR. Rolandic epilepsy has little effect on adult life 30 years later: a population-based study. Neurology. 2014;82(13):1162–1166.Google Scholar
Caraballo, R, Cersosimo, R, Medina, C, Fejerman, N. Panayiotopoulos-type benign childhood occipital epilepsy: a prospective study. Neurology. 2000;55(8):1096–1100.Google Scholar
Wirrell, EC, Camfield, CS, Camfield, PR, Gordon, KE, Dooley, JM. Long-term prognosis of typical childhood absence epilepsy: remission or progression to juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Neurology. 1996;47(4):912–918.Google Scholar
Allen, NM, Mannion, M, Conroy, J, et al. The variable phenotypes of KCNQ-related epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2014;55(9):e99–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kato, M, Yamagata, T, Kubota, M, et al. Clinical spectrum of early onset epileptic encephalopathies caused by KCNQ2 mutation. Epilepsia. 2013;54(7):1282–1287.Google Scholar
Weckhuysen, S, Mandelstam, S, Suls, A, et al. KCNQ2 encephalopathy: emerging phenotype of a neonatal epileptic encephalopathy. Ann Neurol. 2012;71(1):15–25.Google Scholar
Nordli, DR Jr., De Vivo, DC. Classification of infantile seizures: implications for identification and treatment of inborn errors of metabolism. J Child Neurol. 2002;17(Suppl 3):3S3–7; discussion 3S8.Google Scholar
Campbell, C, Levin, S, Humphreys, P, Walop, W, Brannan, R. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis: results of the Canadian Paediatric Surveillance Program and review of the literature. BMC Pediatr. 2005;5(1):47.Google Scholar
Vezzani, A, Fujinami, RS, White, HS, et al. Infections, inflammation and epilepsy. Acta Neuropathol. 2016;131(2):211–234.Google Scholar
Britton, JW. Autoimmune epilepsy. In: Pittock, SJ, Vincent, A, eds., Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol 133. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier; 2016:219–245.Google Scholar
Suleiman, J, Dale, RC. The recognition and treatment of autoimmune epilepsy in children. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2015;57(5):431–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jensen, FE. Epilepsy as a spectrum disorder: implications from novel clinical and basic neuroscience. Epilepsia. 2011;52(Suppl 1):1–6.Google Scholar
Fisher, RS, van Emde, Boas W, Blume, W, et al. Epileptic seizures and epilepsy: definitions proposed by the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) and the International Bureau for Epilepsy (IBE). Epilepsia. 2005;46(4):470–472.Google Scholar
Ismayilova, V, Demir, AU, Tezer, FI. Subjective sleep disturbance in epilepsy patients at an outpatient clinic: a questionnaire-based study on prevalence. Epilepsy Res. 2015;115:119–125.Google Scholar
Nickels, KC, Zaccariello, MJ, Hamiwka, LD, Wirrell, EC. Cognitive and neurodevelopmental comorbidities in paediatric epilepsy. Nat Rev Neurol. 2016;12(8):465–476.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×