Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-13T10:33:33.447Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

References

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 September 2024

Andrew Cesare Miller
Affiliation:
United States Naval Academy, Maryland
Get access

Summary

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Silencing Citizens
How Criminal Groups Create Vacuums of Justice
, pp. 277 - 308
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

A Pre-Election Report and Advisory on Violence in Nigeria’s 2015 General Elections. Policy Report. The National Human Rights Commission of Nigeria, February 2015.Google Scholar
Freddie Gray Protests Turn Violent in Baltimore,” April 2015. ABC News. Accessed March 17, 2021. www.youtube.com/watch?v=QePj3RCz7sU&t=1s&ab_channel=ABCNews.Google Scholar
Abt, Thomas. Bleeding Out: The Devastating Consequences of Urban Violence – and a Bold New Plan for Peace in the Streets. New York: Basic Books, 2019.Google Scholar
Adepegba, Adelani. “Policemen Protest Delayed Salaries, Say We Borrow to Eat.” Punch Newspapers, July 2017, Online.Google Scholar
Akerlof, George A., and Yellen, Janet L.. “Gang Behavior, Law Enforcement, and Community Values.” In Values and Public Policy, edited by Henry, J. Aaron, Thomas, E. Mann, and Taylor, Timothy. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2001, 173–209.Google Scholar
Akinjobi-Babatunde, Tosin. “Women Police in the Nigerian Security Sector.” African Security Review 24, no. 4 (2015): 438444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akinyele, Rufus Taiwo. Nigeria: Contesting for Space, Identity and Security. Ibadan, Nigeria: Connel & Rex Charles Publications, 2014.Google Scholar
Alabi, Wale. “OPC Boys Watch Over Oshodi.” Daily Sun, January 2004, Online.Google Scholar
Alderden, Megan A., and Timothy A., Lavery. “Predicting Homicide Clearances in Chicago: Investigating Disparities in Predictors across Different Types of Homicide.” Homicide Studies 11, no. 2 (2007): 115132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alemika, Etannibi E. O., and Innocent C. Chukwuma. Criminal Victimization and Fear of Crime in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria. CLEEN Foundation Monograph Series 1. Lagos, Nigeria: CLEEN Foundation, 2005.Google Scholar
Alesina, Alberto, Arnaud Devleeschauwer, William Easterly, Kurlat, Sergio, and Wacziarg, Romain. “Fractionalization.” Journal of Economic Growth 8, no. 2 (2003): 155–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alesina, Alberto, and La Ferrara, Eliana. “Who Trusts Others?Journal of Public Economics 85, no. 2 (2002): 207234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, Michelle. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: The New Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Allcott, Hunt. “Social Norms and Energy Conservation.” Journal of Public Economics, Special Issue: The Role of Firms in Tax Systems 95, no. 9 (2011): 10821095.Google Scholar
Allen, Devin. A Beautiful Ghetto. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2017.Google Scholar
American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates. Social Explorer. U.S. Census Bureau, 2017.Google Scholar
Anderson, David M.Vigilantes, Violence and the Politics of Public Order in Kenya.” African Affairs 101, no. 405 (2002): 531555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, Elijah. Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000.Google Scholar
Anderson, Michael L.Multiple Inference and Gender Differences in the Effects of Early Intervention: A Reevaluation of the Abecedarian, Perry Preschool, and Early Training Projects.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 103, no. 484 (2008): 14811495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andreas, Peter. Smuggler Nation: How Illicit Trade Made America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Andrejevic, Mark. “The Work of Watching One Another: Lateral Surveillance, Risk, and Governance.” Surveillance & Society 2, no. 4 (2004): 479497.Google Scholar
Ang, Desmond, Bencsik, Panka, Bruhn, Jesse, and Derenoncourt, Ellora. Police Violence Reduces Civilian Cooperation and Engagement with Law Enforcement. HKS Working Paper No. RWP21-022. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Kennedy School, September 2021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arase, Solomon E. Law on Prevention and Detection of Crimes by the Police in Nigeria. Malthouse Law Books. Lagos, Nigeria: Malthouse Press Limited, 2017.Google Scholar
Arias, Enrique Desmond. Criminal Enterprises and Governance in Latin America and the Caribbean. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arias, Enrique Desmond. Drugs & Democracy in Rio de Janeiro: Trafficking, Social Networks, and Public Security. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Arias, Enrique Desmond. “The Dynamics of Criminal Governance: Networks and Social Order in Rio de Janeiro.” Journal of Latin American Studies 38, no. 2 (2006): 293325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arias, Enrique Desmond, and Barnes, Nicholas. “Crime and Plural Orders in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.” Current Sociology 65, no. 3 (2017): 448465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arias, Enrique Desmond, and Goldstein, Daniel M., eds. Violent Democracies in Latin America. Durham: Duke University Press, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arturo, Angel, Martinez, Paris, and Rea, Daniela. “Solving a Murder in Mexico Is the Exception, Not the Rule,” 2017. Accessed April 6, 2019. www.animalpolitico.com/kill-murder-mexico/homicides-unpunished-mexico.php.Google Scholar
Asch, Solomon E.Studies of Independence and Conformity: I. A Minority of One against a Unanimous Majority.” Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 70, no. 9 (1956): 170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asher, Jeff. “Gang Stats Aren’t Remotely Reliable, but Voters Keep Hearing about Them Anyway,” November 2017. Accessed October 7, 2021. https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/gang-stats-arent-remotely-reliable-but-voters-keep-hearing-about-them-anyway.Google Scholar
Asher, Jeff. “What Improves the Chances of Solving a Murder?The New York Times, July 2021, Online.Google Scholar
Asmann, Parker. “Defining Organized Crime: A Primer (and a Friendly Kerfuffle),” November 2018. Accessed November 19, 2018. www.insightcrime.org/news/analysis/how-to-define-organized-crime-latin-america.Google Scholar
Austin, Raymond D.Traditional American Indian Justice.” In Traditional, National, and International Law and Indigenous Communities, edited by Marianne, O. Nielsen and Jarratt-Snider, Karen, 5070. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, May 2020.Google Scholar
Avakame, Edem F., Fyfe, James J., and Mccoy, Candace. “‘Did You Call the Police? What Did They Do?’ An Empirical Assessment of Black’s Theory of Mobilization of Law.” Justice Quarterly 16, no. 4 (1999): 765792.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayala, Edgardo. “Gang Violence Drives Internal Displacement in El Salvador,” October 2016. Accessed October 9, 2016. www.ipsnews.net/2016/10/gang-violence-drives-internal-displacement-in-el-salvador.Google Scholar
Ayodele, Johnson, and Aderinto, Adeyinka. “Nature of Crime and Crime Reporting of Victims in Lagos, Nigeria.” International Journal of Criminology and Sociological Theory 7 (December 2014): 114.Google Scholar
Ba, Bocar A., Knox, Dean, Mummolo, Jonathan, and Rivera, Roman. “The Role of Officer Race and Gender in Police-Civilian Interactions in Chicago.” Science 371, no. 6530 (2021): 696702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bakare, Bola. “Perspectives on the Nigeria Police Force.” Vanguard News, July 2021, Online.Google Scholar
Balcells, Laia. “The Consequences of Victimization on Political Identities: Evidence from Spain.” Politics & Society 40, no. 3 (2012): 311347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ball, Richard A., and David Curry, G.. “The Logic of Definition in Criminology: Purposes and Methods for Defining ‘Gangs’.” Criminology 33, no. 2 (1995): 225245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Together We’re Stronger PSA (Smith),” June 2019. Baltimore City State’s Attorney’s Office. Accessed February 10, 2020. www.youtube.com/watch?v=EesvDHBzXzQ.Google Scholar
“Sworn Careers,” 2023. Baltimore Police Department. Accessed February 9, 2023. www.baltimorepolice.org/careers/sworn-careers.Google Scholar
Barganier, George. “Fanon’s Children: The Black Panther Party and the Rise of the Crips and Bloods in Los Angeles.” Doctoral Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2011.Google Scholar
Bargent, James. “‘Mega-Gangs’: The Latest Criminal Collective in Venezuela,” March 2017. Accessed April 4, 2019. www.insightcrime.org/news/brief/mega-gangs-latest-collective-venezuela-organized-crime.Google Scholar
Barnes, Nicholas. “Criminal Politics: An Integrated Approach to the Study of Organized Crime, Politics, and Violence.” Perspectives on Politics 15, no. 4 (2017): 967987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, Nicholas. “The Logic of Criminal Territorial Control: Military Intervention in Rio de Janeiro.” Comparative Political Studies 55, no. 5 (2022): 789831.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrows, Julie, and Ronald Huff, C.. “Gangs and Public Policy.” Criminology & Public Policy 8, no. 4 (2009): 675703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateson, Regina. “Crime Victimization and Political Participation.” American Political Science Review 106, no. 3 (2012): 570587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateson, Regina. “The Politics of Vigilantism.” Comparative Political Studies 54, no. 6 (2021): 923955.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayley, David H. Changing the Guard: Developing Democratic Police Abroad. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“What Is the ‘Sovereign Citizen’ Movement?” BBC News, August 2020, Online.Google Scholar
Becker, Gary S.Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach.” In Essays in the Economics of Crime and Punishment, edited by Becker, Gary S. and Landes, William M.. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1974, 154.Google Scholar
Beek, Jan, Göpfert, Mirco, Owen, Olly, and Steinberg, Johnny. Police in Africa: The Street Level View. London: C Hurst & Co, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Police Investigating Hate Crime after Arson and ‘UVF’ Graffiti Painted at Former UDR Base.” Belfast Telegraph, July 2019, Online.Google Scholar
Bell, Monica C.Police Reform and the Dismantling of Legal Estrangement.” Yale Law Journal, 2017, 20542150.Google Scholar
Bell, Monica C.Situational Trust: How Disadvantaged Mothers Reconceive Legal Cynicism.” Law & Society Review 50, no. 2 (2016): 314347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, Trevor, Holloway, Katy, and Farrington, David P.. “Does Neighborhood Watch Reduce Crime? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Experimental Criminology 2, no. 4 (2007): 437458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berens, Sarah, and Karim, Sabrina. “Quotidian Crime, Wartime Violence and Public Goods Preferences: Evidence from Liberia.” Journal of Peace Research, May 2023, OnlineFirst.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, Eli, Felter, Joseph H., Shapiro, Jacob N., and McIntyre, Vestal. Small Wars, Big Data: The Information Revolution in Modern Conflict. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Bernstein, David S.Boston Is a Shooters’ Paradise.” Boston Magazine, February 2017, Online.Google Scholar
Berrien, Jenny, and Winship, Christopher. “An Umbrella of Legitimacy: Boston’s Police Department: Ten Point Collaboration.” In Securing Our Children’s Future, ed. Katzman, Gary. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2002, 200–228.Google Scholar
Betancourt, Sarah. “‘Satan Is Waiting’: South Boston Residents on ‘Whitey’ Bulger’s Death.” The Guardian, October 2018, Online.Google Scholar
Bey, Danifu. “P.O.C.C. Block Report Radio,” November 2005, Interview by JR Valrey.Google Scholar
Bhagat, Smriti, Moira Burke, Carlos Diuk, Onur Filiz, Ismail, and Sergey, Edunov. “Three and a Half Degrees of Separation,” February 2016. Facebook Research. Accessed November 21, 2018. https://research.facebook.com/blog/2016/2/three-and-a-half-degrees-of-separation.Google Scholar
Bhanot, Syon P.Isolating the Effect of Injunctive Norms on Conservation Behavior: New Evidence from a Field Experiment in California.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 163 (December 2018): 3042.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bichler, Gisela, Alexis Norris, Jared R. Dmello, and Jasmin Randle. “The Impact of Civil Gang Injunctions on Networked Violence between the Bloods and the Crips.” Crime & Delinquency 65, no. 7 (2019): 875915.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bielen, Samantha, Marneffe, Wim, and Mocan, Naci H.. Racial Bias and In-Group Bias in Judicial Decisions: Evidence from Virtual Reality Courtrooms. NBER Working Paper No. 25355. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, Donald. The Behavior of Law. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Academic Press, 1976.Google Scholar
Blair, Graeme, Christia, Fotini, Weinstein, Jeremy, and Miller, Andrew. “Understanding Community Policing.” In Crime, Insecurity, and Community Policing: Experiments on Building Trust, edited by Blair, Graeme, Christia, Fotini, and Weinstein, Jeremy. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Blair, Graeme, and Imai, Kosuke. “Statistical Analysis of List Experiments.” Political Analysis 20, no. 1 (2012): 4777.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, Graeme, Weinstein, Jeremy M., Fotini Christia, Eric Arias, Emile Badran, Robert A. Blair, Ali Cheema, et al. “Community Policing Does Not Build Citizen Trust in Police or Reduce Crime in the Global South.” Science 374, no. 6571 (2021): eabd3446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, Robert A. Peacekeeping, Policing, and the Rule of Law after Civil War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, Robert A., Sabrina Karim, Michael J. Gilligan, and Kyle C. Beardsley. Policing Ethnicity: Lab-in-the-Field Evidence on Discrimination, Cooperation, and Ethnic Balancing in the Liberian National Police. SSRN Research Paper 2772634. Rochester, New York: Social Science Research Network, 2016.Google Scholar
Blair, Robert A., Karim, Sabrina M., and Morse, Benjamin S.. “Establishing the Rule of Law in Weak and War-Torn States: Evidence from a Field Experiment with the Liberian National Police.” American Political Science Review, 2019, 117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blattman, Christopher. Why We Fight: The Roots of War and the Paths to Peace. New York: Viking, 2022.Google Scholar
Blattman, Christopher, Lessing, Benjamin, Tobón, Santiago, and Duncan, Gustavo. Gang Rule: Understanding and Countering Criminal Governance. OSF Preprints. SocArXiv, February 2021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bodrero, Lorenzo. “Italian Trial Looks at Mafia-State Pact,” May 2013. Accessed August 20, 2019. www.occrp.org/en/28-ccwatch/cc-watch-indepth/1955-italian-trial-looks-at-mafia-state-pact.Google Scholar
Bonesana di Beccaria, Cesare. An Essay on Crimes and Punishments. Albany, New York: W.C. Little, 1872.Google Scholar
Bonner, David. Executive Measures, Terrorism and National Security: Have the Rules of the Game Changed? Farnham, United Kingdom: Ashgate Publishing, 2013.Google Scholar
Bosick, Stacey J., Callie Marie Rennison, Angela R. Gover, and Mary Dodge. “Reporting Violence to the Police: Predictors through the Life Course.” Journal of Criminal Justice 40, no. 6 (2012): 441451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Botero, Juan Carlos, and Ponce, Alejandro. Measuring the Rule of Law. SSRN Scholarly Paper 1966257. Rochester, New York: Social Science Research Network, November 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boudreau, Cheryl, MacKenzie, Scott A., and Simmons, Daniel J.. “Police Violence and Public Perceptions: An Experimental Study of How Information and Endorsements Affect Support for Law Enforcement.” Journal of Politics 81, no. 3 (2019): 11011110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boxerman, Aaron. “Arab Communities Shattered, as Organized Crime Fuels a Skyrocketing Murder Rate.” Times of Israel, December 2020, Online.Google Scholar
Boyd, Robert, Gintis, Herbert, Bowles, Samuel, and Richerson, Peter J.. “The Evolution of Altruistic Punishment.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100, no. 6 (2003): 35313535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradford, Ben, and Jackson, Jonathan. “Cooperating with the Police as an Act of Social Control: Trust and Neighbourhood Concerns as Predictors of Public Assistance.” Nordisk politiforskning 3, no. 2 (2016): 111131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, Anthony A., and Dusseault, Desiree. “Can Homicide Detectives Improve Homicide Clearance Rates?Crime & Delinquency 64, no. 3 (2018): 283315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, Anthony A., Papachristos, Andrew V., and Hureau, David M.. “The Concentration and Stability of Gun Violence at Micro Places in Boston, 1980–2008.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 26, no. 1 (2010): 3353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, Anthony A., Christopher Winship, Tom R. Tyler, Jeffrey Fagan, and Meares, Tracey L.. “The Salience of Social Contextual Factors in Appraisals of Police Interactions with Citizens: A Randomized Factorial Experiment.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 30, no. 4 (2014): 599627.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breiner, Josh. “Israel Police Solved 71 Percent of Murders in Jewish Community, but Only 23 Percent for Arabs.” Haaretz, August 2021, Online.Google Scholar
Broadwater, Luke. “Baltimore Officials Award $50,000 SUV to Shomrim Neighborhood Watch Group.” The Baltimore Sun, November 2017, Online.Google Scholar
Brown, Ethan. Snitch: Informants, Cooperators, and the Corruption of Justice. New York: PublicAffairs, 2007.Google Scholar
Brown, Robert A., and Frank, James. “Race and Officer Decision Making: Examining Differences in Arrest Outcomes between Black and White Officers.” Justice Quarterly 23, no. 1 (2006): 96126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bueermann, James, and Manger, Thomas. Reducing Violent Crime in American Cities. Policy Report. Police Foundation and Major Cities Chiefs Association, 2016.Google Scholar
“Victimizations Not Reported to the Police, 2006–2010,” August 2012. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Accessed February 27, 2021. www.bjs.gov/content/pub/press/vnrp0610pr.cfm.Google Scholar
Butler, Paul. Chokehold: Policing Black Men. New York: The New Press, 2017. Campbell, Duncan. “Inside the 21st Century British Criminal Underworld.” The Guardian, July 2019, Online.Google Scholar
Cantoni, Davide, Yang, David Y., Yuchtman, Noam, and Jane Zhang, Y.. Are Protests Games of Strategic Complements or Substitutes? Experimental Evidence from Hong Kong’s Democracy Movement. NBER Working Paper 23110. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, January 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carcach, Carlos. Reporting Crime to the Police. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 1997.Google Scholar
Carlo, Philip. Gaspipe: Confessions of a Mafia Boss. New York: William Morrow, 2008.Google Scholar
Carr, Jillian B., and Doleac, Jennifer L.. The Goegraphy, Incidence, and Underreporting of Gun Violence: New Evidence Using ShotSpotter Data. Working Paper. The Brookings Institution, April 2016.Google Scholar
Carter, David L., and Carter, Jeremy G.. “Effective Police Homicide Investigations: Evidence from Seven Cities with High Clearance Rates.” Homicide Studies 20, no. 2 (2016): 150176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torres, Castro, Andrés, F., and Alburez-Gutierrez, Diego. “North and South: Naming Practices and the Hidden Dimension of Global Disparities in Knowledge Production.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 10 (2022): e2119373119.Google Scholar
“Drug Overdose Mortality by State,” March 2022. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accessed December 28, 2022. www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/sosmap/drug_poisoning_mortality/drug_poisoning.htm.Google Scholar
Centola, Damon, Becker, Joshua, Brackbill, Devon, and Baronchelli, Andrea. “Experimental Evidence for Tipping Points in Social Convention.” Science 360, no. 6393 (2018): 11161119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chalfin, Aaron, LaForest, Michael, and Kaplan, Jacob. “Can Precision Policing Reduce Gun Violence? Evidence from ‘Gang Takedowns’ in New York City.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 40, no. 4 (2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Police Meet with Gang Members to Curb Violence,” May 2002. Accessed March 21, 2023. https://edition.channel5belize.com/archives/17113.Google Scholar
Chin, Ko-lin. Chinatown Gangs: Extortion, Enterprise, and Ethnicity. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Chin, Ko-lin. Heijin: Organized Crime, Business, and Politics in Taiwan. London: M.E. Sharpe, 2003.Google Scholar
Cialdini, Robert B.Crafting Normative Messages to Protect the Environment.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 12, no. 4 (2003): 105109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cialdini, Robert B. Influence: Science and Practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2008.Google Scholar
Cinelli, Carlos, and Hazlett, Chad. “Making Sense of Sensitivity: Extending Omitted Variable Bias.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Statistical Methodology) 82, no. 1 (2020): 3967.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Michael. “‘I Just Want Justice’: Talladega Mothers Searching for Answers to Unsolved Murders,” May 2021. Accessed October 7, 2021. www.cbs42.com/your-voice-your-station/i-just-want-justice-talladega-mothers-searching-for-answers-to-unsolved-murders.Google Scholar
Clayman, Stephen, and Skinns, Layla. “To Snitch or Not to Snitch? An Exploratory Study of the Factors Influencing Whether Young People Actively Cooperate with the Police.” Policing and Society 22, no. 4 (2012): 460480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cochran, Joshua C., and Warren, Patricia Y.. “Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Differences in Perceptions of the Police: The Salience of Officer Race within the Context of Racial Profiling.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 28, no. 2 (2012): 206227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cockayne, James. “The Futility of Force? Strategic Lessons for Dealing with Unconventional Armed Groups from the UN’s War on Haiti’s Gangs.” Journal of Strategic Studies 37, no. 5 (2014): 736769.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collier, Paul. “Rebellion as a Quasi-Criminal Activity.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 44, no. 6 (2000): 839853.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Commonwealth v. Gomes and Commonwealth v. Johnson. Brief for Amicus Curiae. American Psychological Association, 2014.Google Scholar
“Constitute,” 2019. Comparative Constitutions Project. Accessed April 6, 2019. www.constituteproject.org.Google Scholar
Cook, Philip J., Braga, Anthony A., Turchan, Brandon S., and Barao, Lisa M.. “Why Do Gun Murders Have a Higher Clearance Rate than Gunshot Assaults?Criminology & Public Policy 18, no. 3 (2019): 525551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper-Knock, Sarah Jane, and Owen, Olly. “Between Vigilantism and Bureaucracy: Improving Our Understanding of Police Work in Nigeria and South Africa.” Theoretical Criminology 19, no. 3 (2015): 355375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper-Knock, Sarah-Jane.Policing in Intimate Crowds: Moving beyond ‘the Mob’ in South Africa.” African Affairs 113, no. 453 (2014): 563582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crepeau, Megan, Spoerre, Anna, and Gorner, Jeremy. “Prosecutor: 2-Year-Old Boy Killed after Gang Leader Gives Order to Shoot: ‘Bust, Bust, Bust’.” The Chicago Tribune, October 2018, Online.Google Scholar
“Our Work,” 2018. Crime Stoppers International. Accessed August 11, 2018. https://csiworld.org/our-work.Google Scholar
“Regions,” 2019. Crime Stoppers International. Accessed May 3, 2019. https://csiworld.org/regions.Google Scholar
“Crime Stoppers USA 1-800-222-TIPS,” March 2020. Crime Stoppers USA. Accessed March 27, 2020. www.crimestoppersusa.org.Google Scholar
“Our Guarantee of Anonymity,” 2021. Crimestoppers UK. Accessed October 29, 2021. https://crimestoppers-uk.org/give-information/our-guarantee-of-anonymity.Google Scholar
Criminal Justice Qualified Respondents Survey. Data. World Justice Project, 2022.Google Scholar
Historical Violence Database,” 2021. Criminal Justice Research Center. Accessed October 8, 2021. https://cjrc.osu.edu/research/interdisciplinary/hvd.Google Scholar
Cronin-Furman, Kate, and Lake, Milli. “Ethics Abroad: Fieldwork in Fragile and Violent Contexts.” PS: Political Science & Politics, April 2018, 18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cruz, José Miguel. “El barrio transnacional.” In Redes transnacionales en la Cuenca de los Huracanes, edited by Pisani, Francis, Natalia Saltalamacchia, Arlene B. Tickner, and Nielan Barnes. Mexico City: Porrula Miguel Angel S A, 2007, 357–381.Google Scholar
Cruz, José Miguel, and Durán-Martínez, Angélica. “Hiding Violence to Deal with the State: Criminal Pacts in El Salvador and Medellin.” Journal of Peace Research 53, no. 2 (2016): 197210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cruz, José Miguel, and Kloppe-Santamaría, Gema. “Determinants of Support for Extralegal Violence in Latin America and the Caribbean.” Latin American Research Review 54, no. 1 (2019): 5068.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuellar, Dann. “Grandmother Killed after Being Caught in Crossfire while Getting Food,” May 2019. Accessed March 13, 2020. https://6abc.com/5306278.Google Scholar
Cummings, James J., and Bailenson, Jeremy N.. “How Immersive Is Enough? A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Immersive Technology on User Presence.” Media Psychology 19, no. 2 (2016): 272309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curry, G. David. “Gangs, Crime, and Terrorism.” In Criminologists on Terrorism and Homeland Security, edited by Brian Forst, Jack R. Greene, and James P. Lynch, pp. 97–112. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Curtice, Travis. Police and Co-Ethnic Bias: Evidence from a Conjoint Experiment in Uganda. Working Paper. 2019.Google Scholar
Dalby, Chris, and Carranza, Camilo. “InSight Crime’s 2018 Homicide Round-Up,” January 2019. Accessed April 6, 2019. www.insightcrime.org/news/analysis/insight-crime-2018-homicide-roundup.Google Scholar
DarkSkyLady. “Police Abolition Isn’t New and Is an Essential Step towards Equality,” April 2021. Age of Awareness. Accessed December 5, 2022. medium.com/age-of-awareness/police-abolition-isnt-new-and-is-an-essential-step-towards-equality-1841a3200dc5.Google Scholar
Darley, John M., and Latané, Bibb. “Bystander Intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion of Responsibility.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8, no. 4, Pt.1 (1968): 377–383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Das, Sauvik, Kramer, Adam D.I., Dabbish, Laura A., and Hong, Jason I.. “Increasing Security Sensitivity with Social Proof: A Large-Scale Experimental Confirmation.” In Proceedings of the 2014 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security: CCS ’14, 739–749. Scottsdale, Arizona: ACM Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Angela Y. Are Prisons Obsolete? New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003. Davis, Phil. “‘The City Is Functioning’: Ex Officio Mayor Jack Young Tours Baltimore Neighborhood That Saw Double Homicide.” The Baltimore Sun, April 2019, Online.Google Scholar
Niro, De, Robert. A Bronx Tale. TriBeCa Productions, 1993.Google Scholar
Sousa, De, Ronald. The Rationality of Emotion. Cambridge, Massachusetts: A Bradford Book, 1990.Google Scholar
Decker, Scott H., and Pyrooz, David C.. “Street Gangs, Terrorists, Drug Smugglers, and Organized Crime.” In The Handbook of Gangs, pp. 294308. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Decker, Scott H., and Smith, Russell L.. “Police Minority Recruitment: A Note on Its Effectiveness in Improving Black Evaluations of the Police.” Journal of Criminal Justice 8, no. 6 (1980): 387393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeNardo, James. Power in Numbers: The Political Strategy of Protest and Rebellion. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“If You See Something, Say Something,” December 2014. Department of Homeland Security. Accessed November 11, 2018. www.dhs.gov/see-something-say-something.Google Scholar
“When Code of Silence Is Broken, 3 Town Thugs Get Sent to Prison,” March 1995. Accessed November 11, 2022. www.deseret.com/1995/3/25/19166033/when-code-of-silence-is-broken-3-town-thugs-get-sent-to-prison.Google Scholar
Desmond, Matthew, Papachristos, Andrew V., and Kirk, David S.. “Police Violence and Citizen Crime Reporting in the Black Community.” American Sociological Review 81, no. 5 (2016): 857876.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Díaz-Cayeros, Alberto, Magaloni, Beatriz, Matanock, Aila, and Romero, Vidal. Living in Fear: Mapping the Social Embeddedness of Drug Gangs and Violence in Mexico. Working Paper. November 2011.Google Scholar
Dimico, Arcangelo, Isopi, Alessia, and Olsson, Ola. “Origins of the Sicilian Mafia: The Market for Lemons.” Journal of Economic History 77, no. 4 (2017): 10831115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
dlee. “Urban Dictionary: Snitches Get Stitches!,” December 2004. Urban Dictionary. Accessed November 21, 2018. www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=snitches%20get%20stitches%21.Google Scholar
Dumke, Mick. “Chicago’s Inspector General Finds the City’s Gang Database Is Riddled with Errors.” ProPublica, April 2019, Online.Google Scholar
Dunn, Andrew. “Six People Wounded by Gunfire Monday in Baltimore.” The Baltimore Sun, July 2016, Online.Google Scholar
Durán-Martínez, Angélica. The Politics of Drug Violence: Criminals, Cops and Politicians in Colombia and Mexico. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Durose, Matthew, and Langton, Lynn. Requests for Police Assistance, 2011. Special Report 242938. Bureau of Justice Statistics, September 2013.Google Scholar
“Hunting Down the Mafia in Italy,” June 2021. DW Documentary. Accessed November 12, 2021. www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lb_dBYkVVCI.Google Scholar
Edwards, Meredith, and Andone, Dakin. “Ex-South Carolina Cop Michael Slager Gets 20 Years for Walter Scott Killing,” December 2017. Accessed February 7, 2023. www.cnn.com/2017/12/07/us/michael-slager-sentencing/index.html.Google Scholar
Egbejule, Eromo. “Nigeria Gets Tough with Marauding ‘Sons of the Soil’ in Search of Land to Seize,” August 2016. Accessed March 23, 2020. www.reuters.com/article/uk-nigeria-landrights-idUKKCN10Z16C.Google Scholar
Ekici, Siddik, Hüseyin Akdo˘gan, Eman Ragab, and Richard Warnes. Countering Terrorist Recruitment in the Context of Armed Counter-Terrorism Operations. Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2016.Google Scholar
ekiye. “Urban Dictionary: Snitch,” April 2008. Urban Dictionary. Accessed October 23, 2018. www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=snitch.Google Scholar
“Media – Eko Atlantic,” 2018. Eko Atlantic. Accessed June 5, 2018. www.ekoatlantic.com/media.Google Scholar
Elkins, Zachary, and Ginsberg, Tom. “Characteristics of National Constitutions, Version 4.0,” October 2022. Comparative Constitutions Project. Accessed November 20, 2022. https://comparativeconstitutionsproject.org.Google Scholar
Ellis, Stephen. This Present Darkness: A History of Nigerian Organized Crime. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Ellis, Stephen, and Shaw, Mark. “Does Organized Crime Exist in Africa?African Affairs 114, no. 457 (2015): 505528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Cuba – Political Process,” 2020. Accessed March 23, 2020. www.britannica.com/place/Cuba.Google Scholar
Fairness and Effectiveness in Policing: The Evidence. Policy Report. Washington, DC: National Research Council, 2004.Google Scholar
Crime Data Explorer,” 2021. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Accessed October 8, 2021. https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend.Google Scholar
Crime in the United States, Uniform Crime Reports,” 2017. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Accessed February 19, 2020. https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2017/crime-in-the-u.s.-2017.Google Scholar
“Dead Man Incorporated Gang Member Exiled to 16 Years in Prison for Racketeering, Including Murder,” May 2013. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Accessed May 7, 2017. www.fbi.gov/baltimore/press-releases/2013/dead-man-incorporated-gang-member-exiled-to-16-years-in-prison-for-racketeering-including-murder.Google Scholar
“Offenses Cleared,” 2010. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Accessed April 6, 2019. https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2010/crime-in-the-u.s.-2010/clearances.Google Scholar
Feld, Barry. Restorative Juvenile Justice: Repairing the Harm of Youth Crime. Edited by Walgrave, L. and Gordon Bazemore, S.. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Criminal Justice Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Fenton, Justin. “Baltimore Police Officer Conspired with Motorcycle Club to Sell Drugs, Sold ‘Ghost Gun’.” The Baltimore Banner, July 2022, Online.Google Scholar
Fenton, Justin. “Cherry Hill Looks Forward after Resolution of Massive Federal Gang Case.” The Baltimore Sun, April 2016, Online.Google Scholar
Fenton, Justin. “Murder Witness Tells Detectives Victim ‘Wouldn’t Want Me to Say a Thing’.” The Baltimore Sun, December 2015, Online.Google Scholar
Fenton, Justin. We Own This City: A True Story of Crime, Cops, and Corruption. New York: Random House, 2021.Google Scholar
Ferdman, Roberto A. “98% of Murders in Mexico Last Year Went Unsolved,” July 2013. Accessed April 6, 2019. https://qz.com/105952/98-of-murders-in-mexico-last-year-went-unsolved.Google Scholar
Festinger, Leon. “A Theory of Social Comparison Processes.” Human Relations 7, no. 2 (1954): 117140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiandaca, Cheryl. “I-Team: The Problem behind Boston’s Unsolved Murders,” June 2022. Accessed December 2, 2022. www.cbsnews.com/boston/news/unsolved-murder-rates-boston-homicide-clearance.Google Scholar
Fidel, Kondwani. Raw Wounds. Baltimore: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017.Google Scholar
Fischer, Peter, Krueger, Joachim I., Tobias Greitemeyer, Claudia Vogrincic, Andreas Kastenmüller, Dieter Frey, Heene, Moritz, Wicher, Magdalena, and Kainbacher, Martina. “The Bystander-Effect: A Meta-Analytic Review on Bystander Intervention in Dangerous and Non-Dangerous Emergencies.” Psychological Bulletin 137, no. 4 (2011): 517537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, Nick. “‘Workshops of Villains’: Was There Much Organised Crime in Classical Athens?” In Organised Crime in Antiquity, ed. Hopwood, 53–96. London: The Classical Press of Wales, 1999.Google Scholar
Francis, Jacqueline. “Anonymous Tips Lead to Arrest in Danville Homicide Investigation,” September 2018. Accessed May 4, 2019. http://foxillinois.com/news/local/anonymous-tips-lead-to-arrest-in-danville-homicide-investigation.Google Scholar
Franzese, Michael. “Michael Franzese on Sammy the Bull Threats, Accused of 5 Murders, Mafia Hit on Him (Full Interview),” July 2022. Interview by Vladimir Lyubovny. Accessed November 11, 2022. www.youtube.com/watch?v=63ELwMar43k.Google Scholar
French, Howard W.Megalopolis: How Coastal West Africa Will Shape the Coming Century.” The Guardian, October 2022, Online.Google Scholar
Friedman, Jeffrey A.Priorities for Preventive Action: Explaining Americans’ Divergent Reactions to 100 Public Risks.” American Journal of Political Science 63, no. 1 (2018): 16.Google Scholar
Friman, Richard H., and Reno, William, eds. “Illicit Commerce in Peripheral States.” In Crime and the Global Political Economy. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, May 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukuyama, Francis. Origins Of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, March 2012.Google Scholar
Furth-Matzkin, Meirav, and Sunstein, Cass R.. Social Influences on Policy Preferences. SSRN Scholarly Paper 2816595. Rochester, New York: Social Science Research Network, December 2016.Google Scholar
Galeotti, Mark. The Vory: Russia’s Super Mafia. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galula, David. Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Security International, 1964.Google Scholar
Gambetta, Diego. Codes of the Underworld: How Criminals Communicate. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gambetta, Diego. The Sicilian Mafia: The Business of Private Protection. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
The Kingston Kingpin: Christopher ‘Dudus’ Coke,” 2017. Gangsters America’s Most Evil. Accessed November 2, 2019. www.imdb.com/title/tt3351002/?ref_=ttep_ep7.Google Scholar
Gansberg, Martin, and Rosenthal, A. M.. “37 Who Saw Murder Didn’t Call the Police; Apathy at Stabbing of Queens Woman Shocks Inspector.” The New York Times, March 1964, Online.Google Scholar
Gant, Letrice. “Baltimore Ceasefire: Same Bold Mission, in Search of a New Name,” November 2022. Interview with Tom Hall. Accessed November 9, 2022. https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/baltimore-ceasefire-same-bold-mission-in-search-of/id1156591819?i=1000585391714.Google Scholar
García-Ponce, Omar, Young, Lauren E., and Zeitzoff, Thomas. “Anger and Support for Retribution in Mexico’s Drug War.” Journal of Peace Research, July 2022, 117.Google Scholar
Gelman, Andrew. “Scaling Regression Inputs by Dividing by Two Standard Deviations.” Statistics in Medicine 27, no. 15 (2008): 28652873.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
General Population Poll. Data. World Justice Project, 2017.Google Scholar
George, Justin. “Shoot to Kill: Some Baltimore Neighborhoods Condemned to Endure a Shocking Degree of Violence.” The Baltimore Sun, October 2016, Online.Google Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., and Rogers, Todd. “Descriptive Social Norms and Motivation to Vote: Everybody’s Voting and so Should You.” Journal of Politics 71, no. 1 (2009): 178191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerring, John, and Henrik Knutsen, Carl. “Homicide and State History.” American Sociological Review 87, no. 6 (2022): 950980.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gettleman, Jeffrey. “In Baltimore, Slogan Collides with Reality.” The New York Times, September 2003, Online.Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin, and Murakawa, Naomi. “Elite Cues and Political Decision-Making.” In Research in Micropolitics, edited by Michael, X. Carpini, Delli,Huddy, Leonie, and Robert, Y. Shapiro, 6:1550. Cambridge, Massachusetts Elsevier, 2002.Google Scholar
Gilley, Bruce. “The Meaning and Measure of State Legitimacy: Results for 72 Countries.” European Journal of Political Research 45, no. 3 (2006): 499525.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noah, Gimbel, V., and Muhammad, Craig. “Are Police Obsolete? Breaking Cycles of Violence through Abolition Democracy Part I: Policing, Race & Incarceration.” Cardozo Law Review 40, no. 4 (2018): 14531542.Google Scholar
Gingerich, Daniel W., and Oliveros, Virginia. “Police Violence and the Underreporting of Crime.” Economics & Politics 30, no. 1 (2018): 78105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“The Organized Crime Index,” 2021. Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime. Accessed January 24, 2023. https://ocindex.net.Google Scholar
Global Liveability Index 2018. Policy Report. Economist Intelligence Unit, 2018.Google Scholar
Global Study on Homicide 2014. Policy Report. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, March 2014.Google Scholar
Global Study on Homicide 2019. Policy Report. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, July 2019.Google Scholar
González, Yanilda María. Authoritarian Police in Democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goudriaan, Heike, Lynch, James P., and Nieuwbeerta, Paul. “Reporting to the Police in Western Nations: A Theoretical Analysis of the Effects of Social Context.” Justice Quarterly 21, no. 4 (2004): 933969.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goudriaan, Heike, Wittebrood, Karin, and Nieuwbeerta, Paul. “Neighbourhood Characteristics and Reporting Crime: Effects of Social Cohesion, Confidence in Police Effectiveness and Socio-Economic Disadvantage.” British Journal of Criminology 46, no. 4 (2005): 719742.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, Taya, Yoes, Sean, and Janis, Stephen. “The Lingering Consequences of Zero Tolerance,” May 2018. Truth and Reconciliation. Accessed May 5, 2019. www.wypr.org/programs/truth-and-reconciliation.Google Scholar
Granovetter, Mark. “Threshold Models of Collective Behavior.” American Journal of Sociology 83, no. 6 (1978): 14201443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grant, Will. “Mexico’s Gruesome Killings.” BBC News, May 2012, Online.Google Scholar
“Inner Harbor Wins 2009 Heritage Award from the Urban Land Institute,” May 2009. Greater Baltimore Committee. Accessed February 19, 2020. https://gbc.org/inner-harbor-wins-2009-heritage-award-from-the-urban-land-institute.Google Scholar
Grillo, Ioan. El Narco: Inside Mexico’s Criminal Insurgency. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Grillo, Ioan. Gangster Warlords: Drug Dollars, Killing Fields, and the New Politics of Latin America. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Grossman, Shelby. The Politics of Order in Informal Markets: How the State Shapes Private Governance. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gürerk, Özgür, and Kasulke, Alina. Does Virtual Reality Increase Charitable Giving? An Experimental Study. SSRN Research Paper 3072002. Rochester, New York: Social Science Research Network, April 2018.Google Scholar
Haas, Nicole E., de Keijser, Jan W., and Bruinsma, Gerben J. N.. “Public Support for Vigilantism, Confidence in Police and Police Responsiveness.” Policing and Society 24, no. 2 (2014): 224241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Habyarimana, James, Macartan Humphreys, Daniel N. Posner, and Jeremy M. Weinstein. “Why Does Ethnic Diversity Undermine Public Goods Provision?” American Political Science Review 101, no. 4 (2007): 709725.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halloran, Bob. White Devil: The True Story of the First White Asian Crime Boss. Dallas: BenBella Books, 2016.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Alexander, Madison, James, and Jay, John. The Federalist Papers. Independent, 2020.Google Scholar
Hamlin, J. Kiley, Karen Wynn, Paul Bloom, and Neha Mahajan. “How Infants and Toddlers React to Antisocial Others.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 50 (2011): 19931–19936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hargrove, Thomas. “Why Are American Cops so Bad at Catching Killers?,” April 2015. Accessed November 13, 2016. www.themarshallproject.org/2015/04/02/why-are-american-cops-so-bad-at-catching-killers.Google Scholar
Hargrove, Thomas, Lucas, Elizabeth, and Wolf, Isaac. Murder Mysteries. Policy Report. Scripps Howard, 2010.Google Scholar
Harris, Mari, and Radaelli, Stephano. “Paralysed by Fear: Perceptions of Crime and Violence in South Africa.” South African Crime Quarterly, no. 20 (2016): 16.Google Scholar
Henrich, Joseph, Richard McElreath, Abigail Barr, Jean Ensminger, Clark Barrett, Alexander Bolyanatz, Juan Camilo Cardenas, et al. “Costly Punishment across Human Societies.” Science 312, no. 5781 (2006): 17671770.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herbst, Jeffrey. States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Hill, Peter B. E. The Japanese Mafia: Yakuza, Law, and the State. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan: Or the Matter, Forme, & Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civill. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Holland, Alisha C.Forbearance.” American Political Science Review 110, no. 2 (2016): 232246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoorens, Vera. “Self-Enhancement and Superiority Biases in Social Comparison.” European Review of Social Psychology 4, no. 1 (1993): 113139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoornweg, Daniel, and Pope, Kevin. Socioeconomic Pathways and Regional Distribution of the World’s 101 Largest Cities. Global Cities Institute Working Paper No. 4. Global Cities Institute, January 2014.Google Scholar
Howell, K. Babe. “Broken Lives from Broken Windows: The Hidden Costs of Aggressive Order-Maintenance Policing.” New York University Review of Law & Social Change 33, no. 3 (2009): 271330.Google Scholar
Howle, Elaine M. The CalGang Criminal Intelligence System: As the Result of Its Weak Oversight Structure, It Contains Questionable Information That May Violate Individuals’ Privacy Rights. Report 2015-130. California State Auditor, 2015.Google Scholar
Huppke, Rex W.Silent Witnesses Let Killers Dodge Justice.” Chicago Tribune, May 2004, Online.Google Scholar
Huq, Aziz Z., Tyler, Tom R., and Schulhofer, Stephen J.. “Why Does the Public Cooperate with Law Enforcement? The Influence of the Purposes and Targets of Policing.” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 17, no. 3 (2011): 419450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutson, H. Range, Deirdre Anglin, and Michael J. Pratts. “Adolescents and Children Injured or Killed in Drive-by Shootings in Los Angeles.” New England Journal of Medicine 330, no. 5 (1994): 324327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Idler, Annette. Borderland Battles: Violence, Crime, and Governance at the Edges of Colombia’s War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Homicide Monitor,” 2018. Igarapé Institute. Accessed November 21, 2018. htt ps://homicide.igarape.org.br.Google Scholar
Eyewitness Identification Reform,” 2017. Innocence Project. Accessed November 11, 2022. www.innocenceproject.org/eyewitness-identification-reform.Google Scholar
Ismail, Olawale. “The Dialectic of ‘Junctions’ and ‘Bases’: Youth, ‘Securo-Commerce’ and the Crises of Order in Downtown Lagos,” Security Dialogue, September 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bursik, J. Jr., Robert, and Grasmick, Harold G.. Neighborhoods and Crime: The Dimensions of Effective Community Control. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, January 2002.Google Scholar
Jacquemet, Marco. Credibility in Court: Communicative Practices in the Camorra Trials. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Jain, Rishee K., Rimas Gulbinas, John E. Taylor, and Patricia J. Culligan. “Can Social Influence Drive Energy Savings? Detecting the Impact of Social Influence on the Energy Consumption Behavior of Networked Users Exposed to Normative Eco-Feedback.” Energy and Buildings 66 (November 2013): 119127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jamieson, Alison. The Antimafia: Italy’s Fight against Organized Crime. Basingstoke, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janetsky, Megan, and Richard Luxama, Pierre. “In Haiti, Gangs Take Control as Democracy Withers.” AP News, January 2023.Google Scholar
Jefferson, Hakeem, José Luis Gandara, Cathy J. Cohen, Yanilda M. González, Rebecca U. Thorpe, and Vesla M. Weaver. “Beyond the Ballot Box: A Conversation about Democracy and Policing in the United States.” Annual Review of Political Science 26, no. 1 (2023): 1.1–1.32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiang, Junyan, and Yang, Dali L.. “Lying or Believing? Measuring Preference Falsification from a Political Purge in China.” Comparative Political Studies 49, no. 5 (2016): 600634.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, Devon. “Anger about Crime and Support for Punitive Criminal Justice Policies.” Punishment & Society 11, no. 1 (2009): 5166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“ShotSpotter Data on Gunfire Incidents,” 2020. Justice Tech Lab. Accessed April 7, 2020. http://justicetechlab.org/shotspotter-data.Google Scholar
Kaba, Mariame, and Ritchie, Andrea. No More Police: A Case for Abolition. New York: The New Press, 2022.Google Scholar
Kalven, Jamie. “Code of Silence,” October 2016. Accessed October 10, 2016. https://theintercept.com/series/code-of-silence.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N.How Civil Wars Help Explain Organized Crime – and How They Do Not.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 59, no. 8 (2015): 15171540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanakogi, Yasuhiro, Michiko Miyazaki, Hideyuki Takahashi, Yamamoto, Hiroki, Kobayashi, Tessei, and Hiraki, Kazuo. “Third-Party Punishment by Preverbal Infants.” Nature Human Behaviour 6, no. 9 (2022): 12341242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kane, Robert J.Compromised Police Legitimacy as a Predictor of Violent Crime in Structurally Disadvantaged Communities*.” Criminology 43, no. 2 (2005): 469498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karim, Sabrina. “Militarized Policing Is a Global Problem with U.S. Roots.” World Politics Review, November 2021, Online.Google Scholar
Karim, Sabrina. “Relational State Building in Areas of Limited Statehood: Experimental Evidence on the Attitudes of the Police.” American Political Science Review 114, no. 2 (2020): 116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, Charles M., Webb, Vincent J., Fox, Kate, and Shaffer, Jennifer N.. “Understanding the Relationship between Violent Victimization and Gang Membership.” Journal of Criminal Justice 39, no. 1 (2011): 4859.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod, and Waller, Maureen R.. “Taxing the Poor: Incarceration, Poverty Governance, and the Seizure of Family Resources.” Perspectives on Politics 13, no. 3 (2015): 638656.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kearns, Erin Marie. “If You See Something, Do You Say Something? The Role of Legitimacy and Trust in Policing Minority Communities in Counterterrorism.” Doctoral Dissertation, American University, 2016.Google Scholar
Keefe, Patrick Radden. Say Nothing: A True Story of Murder and Memory in Northern Ireland. New York: Doubleday, 2019.Google Scholar
Keel, Timothy G., Jarvis, John P., and Muirhead, Yvonne E.. “An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Affecting Homicide Investigations: Examining the Dynamics of Murder Clearance Rates.” Homicide Studies 13, no. 1 (2009): 5068.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelling, George L., and Wilson, James. “Broken Windows: The Police and Neighborhood Safety.” The Atlantic, 1982.Google Scholar
Kelly, Kimbriell, Lowery, Wesley, and Rich, Steven. “As Killings Surge, Chicago Police Solve Fewer Homicides.” The Washington Post, November 2016, Online.Google Scholar
Kendi, Ibram X.It’s Time for Police to Start Snitching.” The Atlantic, May 2018.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Leslie W., Caplan, Joel M., Piza, Eric L., and Thomas, Amanda L.. “Environmental Factors Influencing Urban Homicide Clearance Rates: A Spatial Analysis of New York City.” Homicide Studies 25, no. 4 (2021): 313334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, Randall. Race, Crime, and the Law. New York: Pantheon, 1997.Google Scholar
Kenrick, Douglas T., Vladas Griskevicius, Steven L. Neuberg, and Mark Schaller. “Renovating the Pyramid of Needs: Contemporary Extensions Built upon Ancient Foundations.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 5, no. 3 (2010): 292314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilar, Steve. “Elder Werdesheim Brother Convicted in Assault of Teen.” The Baltimore Sun, May 2012, Online.Google Scholar
King, Gary, Keohane, Robert O., and Verba, Sidney. Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinnes, Irvin. “Contested Governance: Police and Gang Interactions.” Doctoral Dissertation, University of Cape Town, June 2017.Google Scholar
Kochel, Tammy Rinehart, Parks, Roger, and Mastrofski, Stephen D.. “Examining Police Effectiveness as a Precursor to Legitimacy and Cooperation with Police.” Justice Quarterly 30, no. 5 (2013): 895925.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koenig, Sarah. “A Bird in Jail Is Worth Two on the Street.” Serial Podcast. Accessed April 16, 2019. https://serialpodcast.org/season-three/4/transcript. Kohfeld, Carol W., and John Sprague. “Demography, Police Behavior, and Deterrence.” Criminology 28, no. 1 (1990): 111–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koster, Nathalie-Sharon N., Kuijpers, Karlijn F., Kunst, Maarten J. J., and Van der Leun, Joanne P.. “Crime Victims’ Perceptions of Police Behavior, Legitimacy, and Cooperation: A Review of the Literature.” Victims & Offenders 11, no. 3 (2016): 392435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kotlowitz, Alex. “Solving Chicago’s Murders Could Prevent More.” The New Yorker, September 2016.Google Scholar
Krinninger, Theresa. “Mob Justice in Africa: Why People Take the Law into Their Own Hands,” May 2016. Accessed February 24, 2021. www.dw.com/en/mob-justice-in-africa-why-people-take-the-law-into-their-own-hands/a-19238120.Google Scholar
Kryt, Jeremy. “Vigilante Armies Are Fighting Mexican Drug Cartels, but Whose Side Are They Really On?,” July 2019. Accessed March 27, 2020. www.thedailybeast.com/in-mexico-vigilante-armies-are-fighting-drug-cartels-but-whose-side-are-they-really-on.Google Scholar
Kuran, Timur. Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
La ‘lettera al caro estortore’ di Libero Grassi: così nacque la lotta antiracket in Sicilia.” la Repubblica, August 2018, Online.Google Scholar
Lagos State Development Plan 2012–2025. Ministry of Economic Planning and Budget. Lagos State Government, September 2013.Google Scholar
“Lagos Neighborhood Safety Corps (LNSC),” 2018. Lagos State Government. Accessed January 5, 2019. https://lsstf.lagosstate.gov.ng/lagos-neighborhood-safety-corpslnsc.Google Scholar
Lagrange, Marc-André, and Vircoulon, Thierry. Criminals or Vigilants? The Kuluna Gangs of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Policy Report. Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, May 2021.Google Scholar
Lampe, Klaus von. “Organized Crime Defined,” 2019. Organized Crime Research. Accessed April 9, 2019. www.organized-crime.de/OCDEF1.htm.Google Scholar
Langton, Lynn, Krebs, Christopher, and Smiley-McDonald, Hope. “Victimizations Not Reported to the Police, 2006–2010.” Special Report, National Crime Victimization Survey, 2012, 18.Google Scholar
Lar, Jiman. “Historicising Vigilante Policing in Plateau State, Nigeria.” In Police in Africa: The Street Level View, edited by Beek, Jan, Göpfert, Mirco, Owen, Olly, and Steinberg, Johnny. London: C Hurst & Co, July 2017, 79–100.Google Scholar
LeBas, Adrienne. “Violence and Urban Order in Nairobi, Kenya and Lagos, Nigeria.” Studies in Comparative International Development 48, no. 3 (2013): 240262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Catherine. “The Value of Life in Death: Multiple Regression and Event History Analyses of Homicide Clearance in Los Angeles County.” Journal of Criminal Justice 33, no. 6 (2005): 527534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Legitimacy and Procedural Justice: A New Element of Police Leadership. Policy Report. Police Executive Research Forum, March 2014.Google Scholar
Lehr, Dick, and O’Neill, Gerard. Whitey: The Life of America’s Most Notorious Mob Boss. New York: Crown Publishing, 2013.Google Scholar
Leites, Nathan Constantin, and Wolf, Charles. Rebellion and Authority. Santa Barbara, California: RAND Corporation, 1970.Google Scholar
Leovy, Jill. Ghettoside: A True Story of Murder in America. New York: Spiegel & Grau, 2015.Google Scholar
Lerman, Amy E., and Weaver, Vesla M.. Arresting Citizenship: The Democratic Consequences of American Crime Control. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lerner, Jennifer S., and Keltner, Dacher. “Fear, Anger, and Risk.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81, no. 1 (2001): 146159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leslie, Glaister. Confronting the Don: The Political Economy of Gang Violence in Jamaica, Technical Report. Small Arms Survey, September 2010.Google Scholar
Lessing, Benjamin. “Conceptualizing Criminal Governance.” Perspectives on Politics 19, no. 3 (2021): 854873.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lessing, Benjamin. “Logics of Violence in Criminal War.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 59, no. 8 (2015): 14861516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lessing, Benjamin. Making Peace in Drug Wars: Crackdowns and Cartels in Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lessing, Benjamin, and Denyer Willis, Graham. “Legitimacy in Criminal Governance: Managing a Drug Empire from Behind Bars.” American Political Science Review 113, no. 2 (2019): 584606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levi, Margaret. Of Rule and Revenue. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Levy, Jack S.Case Studies: Types, Designs, and Logics of Inference.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 25, no. 1 (2008): 118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ley, Sandra. “To Vote or Not to Vote: How Criminal Violence Shapes Electoral Participation.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 62, no. 9 (2018): 19631990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, Evan S., and McClendon, Gwyneth H.. “The Ethnicity–Policy Preference Link in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Comparative Political Studies 46, no. 5 (2013): 574602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liem, Marieke, Karoliina Suonpää, Martti Lehti, Janne Kivivuori, Sven Granath, Walser, Simone, and Killias, Martin. “Homicide Clearance in Western Europe.” European Journal of Criminology 16, no. 1 (2019): 81101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Litwin, Kenneth J.A Multilevel Multivariate Analysis of Factors Affecting Homicide Clearances.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 41 (2004): 327351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Litwin, Kenneth J., and Xu, Yili. “The Dynamic Nature of Homicide Clearances: A Multilevel Model Comparison of Three Time Periods.” Homicide Studies 11, no. 2 (2007): 94114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, Paul, and Fabbri, Marco. More Eyes, (No Guns,) Less Crime: Estimating the Effects of Unarmed Private Patrols on Crime Using a Bayesian Structural Time-Series Model. Working Paper. Erasmus School of Law, February 2016.Google Scholar
Locke, John. “Second Treatise of Government,” 2021. Project Gutenberg. Accessed November 28, 2022. www.gutenberg.org/files/7370/7370-h/7370-h.htm.Google Scholar
Locke, John. Two Treatises of Government. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, George, Sunstein, Cass R., and Golman, Russell. “Disclosure: Psychology Changes Everything.” Annual Review of Economics 6, no. 1 (2014): 391419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LoFaso, Charles A.Solving Homicides: The Influence of Neighborhood Characteristics and Investigator Caseload.” Criminal Justice Review 45, no. 1 (2020): 84103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lohmann, Susanne. “The Dynamics of Informational Cascades: The Monday Demonstrations in Leipzig, East Germany, 1989–91.” World Politics 47, no. 1 (1994): 42101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lombardo, Robert. “Organized Crime in Chicago,” June 2013.C-SPAN. Accessed March 22, 2020. www.c-span.org/video/?313185-5/organized-crime-chicago.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lowery, Wesley, and Bennett, Dalton. “Witness to the Killing.” The Washington Post, October 2018, Online.Google Scholar
Lowery, Wesley, Kelly, Kimbriell, and Rich, Steven. “Murder with Impunity: An Unequal Justice.” The Washington Post, July 2018, Online.Google Scholar
Ludwig, Mike. “A New Year’s Resolution: Don’t Call the Police,” December 2014. Accessed March 22, 2020. https://truthout.org/articles/a-new-years-resolution-don-t-call-the-police.Google Scholar
Lyall, Jason, Shiraito, Yuki, and Imai, Kosuke. “Coethnic Bias and Wartime Informing.” Journal of Politics 77, no. 3 (2015): 833848.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyon, Nicholas, and Malik, Mashail. “Ethnicity and Policing in the Global South: Descriptive Representation and Expectations of Police Bias.” Comparative Political Studies, May 2023, OnlineFirst.Google Scholar
Maas, Peter. Underboss: Sammy the Bull Gravano’s Story of Life in the Mafia. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997.Google Scholar
MacDonald, Michael Patrick. All Souls: A Family Story from Southie. Boston: Beacon Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Magaloni, Beatriz, Franco-Vivanco, Edgar, and Melo, Vanessa. “Killing in the Slums: Social Order, Criminal Governance, and Police Violence in Rio de Janeiro.” American Political Science Review 114, no. 2 (2020): 552572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maguire, Edward R., King, William R., Johnson, Devon, and Katz, Charles M.. “Why Homicide Clearance Rates Decrease: Evidence from the Caribbean.” Policing and Society 20, no. 4 (2010): 373400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malejacq, Romain, and Mukhopadhyay, Dipali. “The ‘Tribal Politics’ of Field Research: A Reflection on Power and Partiality in 21st-Century Warzones.” Perspectives on Politics 14, no. 4 (2016): 10111028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manning, Rachel, Levine, Mark, and Collins, Alan. “The Kitty Genovese Murder and the Social Psychology of Helping: The Parable of the 38 Witnesses.” American Psychologist 62, no. 6 (2007): 555562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mark, Joshua J.Code of Ur-Nammu,” October 2021. World History Encyclopedia. Accessed November 10, 2022. www.worldhistory.org/Code_of_Ur-Nammu.Google Scholar
Martin, Rachel. “Does Diversifying Police Forces Reduce Brutality against Minorities?,” June 2020. Accessed October 23, 2021. www.npr.org/2020/06/22/881559659/does-diversifying-police-forces-reduce-brutality-against-minorities.Google Scholar
Martín, José. “6 Ideas for a Cop-Free World.” Rolling Stone, December 2014. Marton, Adam. “Baltimore Population Continues to Decline.” The Baltimore Sun, April 2019, Online.Google Scholar
Maslow, A. H.A Theory of Human Motivation.” Psychological Review 50, no. 4 (1943): 370396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matanock, Aila, David Dow, Rebecca Hanson, Kronick, Dorothy, and García-Sánchez, Miguel. Post-Conflict Security Structures and Citizen Buy-In. Arlington, VA: Minverva Research Initiative, 2023.Google Scholar
“Operation Crime Watch,” August 2018. Mayor’s Office of Neighborhood Safety and Engagement. Accessed March 17, 2021. https://crime.baltimorecity.gov/operation-crime-watch-0.Google Scholar
Mazzitelli, Antonio L.Transnational Organized Crime in West Africa: The Additional Challenge.” International Affairs 83, no. 6 (2007): 10711090.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAuliffe, Katherine, Jordan, Jillian J., and Warneken, Felix. “Costly Third-Party Punishment in Young Children.” Cognition 134 (January 2015): 110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCall, Andrew. “Resident Assistance, Police Chief Learning, and the Persistence of Aggressive Policing Tactics in Black Neighborhoods.” Journal of Politics 81, no. 3 (2019): 11331142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDowell, Meghan G., and Fernandez, Luis A.. “‘Disband, Disempower, and Disarm’: Amplifying the Theory and Practice of Police Abolition.” Critical Criminology 26, no. 3 (2018): 373391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwen, Tom. “Volume I: Evaluation of the Phoenix Homicide Clearance Project,” 2009. Policy Report. Accessed January 19, 2023. www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/NACJD/studies/26081/version/1.Google Scholar
Mckesson, DeRay. “The Police Are Another Facet of Organized Crime. & I Say That without Hyperbole. We Literally Watched Slager Kill #Wal-terScott,” December 2016. Twitter (@deray). Accessed March 30, 2020. https://twitter.com/deray/status/805894722052976640.Google Scholar
Mendeloff, David. “Trauma and Vengeance: Assessing the Psychological and Emotional Effects of Post-Conflict Justice.” Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 3 (2009): 592623.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Definition of SNITCH,” 2018. Accessed October 23, 2018. www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/snitch.Google Scholar
Meschino, Patricia. “Jamaican Musicians Rally to Support Alleged Drug Kingpin ‘Dudus’ Coke,” June 2010. Accessed March 10, 2023. www.billboard.com/music/music-news/jamaican-musicians-rally-to-support-alleged-drug-kingpin-dudus-coke-957713.Google Scholar
Michalopoulos, Stelios, and Meng Xue, Melanie. “Folklore.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 136, no. 4 (2021): 19932046.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Migdal, Joel S. Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Milenio. “Organized-Crime Group Related Homicides (2007–2015),” 2017. Accessed November 23, 2023. https://justiceinmexico.org/data.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Ojmarrh, and Caudy, Michael S.. “Examining Racial Disparities in Drug Arrests.” Justice Quarterly 32, no. 2 (2015): 288313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Momoh, Abubakar. “Youth Culture and Area Boys in Lagos.” In Identity Transformation and Identity Politics under Structural Adjustment in Nigeria ed. Jega, Attahiru. Nordic Africa Institute, 2000, 181–203.Google Scholar
Moncada, Eduardo. Resisting Extortion. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moncada, Eduardo. “Urban Violence, Political Economy, and Territorial Control: Insights from Medellín.” Latin American Research Review 51, no. 4 (2016): 225248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moncada, Eduardo. “Varieties of Vigilantism: Conceptual Discord, Meaning and Strategies.” Global Crime 18, no. 4 (2017): 403423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morse, Benjamin Sherman. “Policing and the Rule of Law in Weak States: Evidence from Liberia.” Doctoral Dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2019.Google Scholar
Moskos, Peter. Cop in the Hood: My Year Policing Baltimore’s Eastern District. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muhammadu, Halimatu. “Police Begin Training of Vigilante Group Members on Intelligence Gathering,” February 2016. Accessed May 7, 2016. http://naija247news.com/2016/02/police-begin-training-of-vigilante-group-members-on-intelligence-gathering.Google Scholar
Mummolo, Jonathan. “Militarization Fails to Enhance Police Safety or Reduce Crime but May Harm Police Reputation.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 37 (2018): 91819186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mummolo, Jonathan, and Peterson, Erik. “Demand Effects in Survey Experiments: An Empirical Assessment.” American Political Science Review 113, no. 2 (2019): 517529.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mungan, Murat C.The Certainty versus the Severity of Punishment, Repeat Offenders, and Stigmatization.” Economics Letters 150 (January 2017): 126129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Data & Docs,” 2022. Murder Accountability Project. Accessed December 4, 2022. www.murderdata.org/p/data-docs.html.Google Scholar
Murphy, Kristina, and Cherney, Adrian. “Understanding Cooperation with Police in a Diverse Society.” British Journal of Criminology 52 (January 2012): 181201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, Kristina, Hinds, Lyn, and Fleming, Jenny. “Encouraging Public Cooperation and Support for Police.” Policing and Society 18, no. 2 (2008): 136155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, Paul. True Crime Japan: Thieves, Rascals, Killers and Dope Heads. True Stories from a Japanese Courtroom. Rutland, Vermont: Tuttle Publishing, 2016.Google Scholar
Murphy, Tommy E., and Rossi, Martín A.. “Following the Poppy Trail: Origins and Consequences of Mexican Drug Cartels.” Journal of Development Economics 143 (March 2020): 102433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mutahi, Patrick. “Between Illegality and Legality.” South African Crime Quarterly 37 (2011): 1118.Google Scholar
Nagle, Luz. E., and Bolaji Owasanoye. “Fearing the Dark: The Use of Witchcraft to Control Human Trafficking Victims and Sustain Vulnerability.” Southwestern Law Review 45 (January 2016): 561.Google Scholar
Nanes, Matthew. Policing for Peace: Institutions, Expectations, and Security in Divided Societies. Cambridge Studies in Law and Society. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nanes, Matthew, Ravanilla, Nico, and Haim, Dotan. “Fire Alarms for Police Patrols: Experimental Evidence on Coproduction of Public Safety.” Journal of Politics, January 2023, OnlineFirst.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Natapoff, Alexandra. Snitching: Criminal Informants and the Erosion of American Justice. New York: New York University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
“About,” 2023. National Night Out. Accessed April 3, 2023. https://natw.org/about.Google Scholar
National Survey of Victimization and Perception of Public Security (ENVIPE) 2017. Data. National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatics [IN-EGI], 2018.Google Scholar
National Youth Gang Survey. Survey Report. National Gang Center, 2012.Google Scholar
Nee, Patrick, Farrell, Richard, and Blythe, Michael. A Criminal and an Irishman: The Inside Story of the Boston Mob–IRA Connection. Hanover, New Hampshire: Steerforth, 2006.Google Scholar
Nelson, Tamaryn, and Habbach, Hajar. “‘If I Went Back, I Would Not Survive.’ Asylum Seekers Fleeing Violence in Mexico and Central America,” October 2019. Accessed March 26, 2020. https://phr.org/our-work/resources/asylum-seekers-fleeing-violence-in-mexico-and-central-america.Google Scholar
Nieto-Matiz, Camilo. “When the State Becomes Complicit: Mayors, Criminal Actors, and the Deliberate Weakening of the Local State in Colombia.” Comparative Political Studies, November 2022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nixon, Ron. “Amid Violence, Factions and Messages Converge in a Weary and Unsettled Baltimore.” The New York Times, April 2015, Online.Google Scholar
Noelle-Neumann, Elisabeth. “The Spiral of Silence: A Theory of Public Opinion.” Journal of Communication 24, no. 2 (1974): 4351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nuno, Ariel. “[English lyrics] Ariel Nuño – ‘El Mas Buscado (Chapo Guzman)’ (10 Best Narcocorridos 5/10),” April 2014. Zach Foster. Accessed March 22, 2020. www.youtube.com/watch?v=rFCTQESd-bA.Google Scholar
Nussio, Enzo. “Can Crime Foster Social Participation as Conflict Can?*.” Social Science Quarterly 100, no. 3 (2019): 653665.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Mara, Shane. Why Torture Doesn’t Work: The Neuroscience of Interrogation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Neal, Aaron. “Baltimore: A Righteous Struggle Against White Power in Black Face: Neocolonialism!,” April 2015. Accessed February 26, 2020. www.theburningspear.com/2015/04/Baltimore-A-righteous-struggle-against-white-power-in-black-face-neocolonialism.Google Scholar
Okolie, Ifeanyi. “4 Injured in Mushin NURTW Clash.” Vanguard, January 2016, Online.Google Scholar
Olarinmoye, Omobolaji Ololade. “Godfathers, Political Parties and Electoral Corruption in Nigeria.” African Journal of Political Science and International Relations 2, no. 4 (2008): 66.Google Scholar
Olson, Mancur. “Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development.” American Political Science Review 87, no. 3 (1993): 567576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olson, Mancur. The Logic of Collective Action. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971.Google Scholar
Omeni, Akali. Policing and Politics in Nigeria: A Comprehensive History. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ong, Lynette. “Xi Jinping’s ‘Sweeping Black’ Campaign,” April 2021. Accessed November 15, 2022. https://urbanviolence.org/xi-jinpings-sweeping-black-campaign-strong.Google Scholar
“GPT 3.5,” 2022. OpenAI. Accessed December 4, 2022. https://beta.openai.com. Ostrom, Elinor. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.Google Scholar
Over-Policed, Yet Underserved. Policy Report. The West Baltimore Commission on Police Misconduct and the No Boundaries Coalition, 2016.Google Scholar
Owen, Olly. “Government Properties: The Nigeria Police Force as Total Institution?Africa 86, no. 1 (2016): 3758.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owen, Olly. The Nigeria Police Force: Predicaments and Possibilities. NRN Working Paper No. 15. Kano, Nigeria, July 2014.Google Scholar
Owen, Olly, and Garnier, Adèle. “Maintenir l’ordre au Nigeria: vers une histoire de la souveraineté de l’État.” Politique africaine 128, no. 4 (2012): 2551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owumi, Bernard. “New Trends and Attitudes toward Crime: The Phenomenon of Area Boys in Nigeria.” In Urban Management and Urban Violence in Africa ed. Isaac, O. Albert et al. Ibadan, Nigeria: Institut français de recherche en Afrique, 1994, 217–222.Google Scholar
Ozulumba, Chiamaka. “What Led to #EndSARS Protests?This Day, October 2021.Google Scholar
Palazzo, Guido. “Values against Violence,” February 2015. Conference ESSEC. Accessed August 14, 2018. www.youtube.com/watch?v=zhf75qL3qMU.Google Scholar
Palminteri, Chazz. “Chazz Palminteri ‘A Bronx Tale’ Sit Down,” May 2021. Interview by Michael Franzese. Accessed March 18, 2023. www.youtube.com/watch?v=F6zxJkDkOa0.Google Scholar
Papp, Jordan, Smith, Brad, Wareham, Jennifer, and Wu, Yuning. “Fear of Retaliation and Citizen Willingness to Cooperate with Police.” Policing and Society 29, no. 6 (2019): 623639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petersen, Roger D. Resistance and Rebellion: Lessons from Eastern Europe. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petersen, Roger D. Understanding Ethnic Violence: Fear, Hatred, and Resentment in Twentieth-Century Eastern Europe. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pettersson, Therése, Högbladh, Stina, and Öberg, Magnus. “Organized Violence, 1989–2018 and Peace Agreements.” Journal of Peace Research 56, no. 4 (2019): 589603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, Brian J.How Does Leadership Decapitation Affect Violence? The Case of Drug Trafficking Organizations in Mexico.” Journal of Politics 77, no. 2 (2015): 324336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, Brian J.Terrorist Tactics by Criminal Organizations: The Mexican Case in Context.” Perspectives on Terrorism 12, no. 1 (2018): 4663.Google Scholar
Pirie, Fernanda. The Rule of Laws: A 4,000-Year Quest to Order the World. New York: Basic Books, 2021.Google Scholar
Police Abolition 101. Policy Report. MPD150 & “What’s Next?”, 2020.Google Scholar
Pozo, Brandon del, Knorre, Alex, Mello, Michael J., and Chalfin, Aaron. “Comparing Risks of Firearm-Related Death and Injury among Young Adult Males in Selected US Cities with Wartime Service in Iraq and Afghanistan.” JAMA Network Open 5, no. 12 (2022): e2248132.Google Scholar
Price, Jamiese. “Hueytown Police Chief Thanks Community for Helping Solve Homicide Case,” January 2017. Accessed April 9, 2020. www.wbrc.com/story/34264109/hueytown-police-chief-thanks-community-for-helping-solve-homicide-case.Google Scholar
Puckett, Janice L., and Lundman, Richard J.. “Factors Affecting Homicide Clearances: Multivariate Analysis of a More Complete Conceptual Framework.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 40, no. 2 (2003): 171193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Purnell, Derecka. Becoming Abolitionists: Police, Protests, and the Pursuit of Freedom. New York: Astra House, 2021.Google Scholar
Raab, Selwyn. Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America’s Most Powerful Mafia Empires. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2016.Google Scholar
Ramsey, Charles, and Robinson, Laurie. Final Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. Policy Report. The President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing, May 2015.Google Scholar
Reaves, Brian A. Local Police Departments, 2013: Personnel, Policies, and Practices. Policy Report. National Criminal Justice Reference Service, May 2015.Google Scholar
Rector, Kevin. “‘Bodies on Bodies’: Baltimore Police Increasingly Accusing the Dead of Murder.” The Baltimore Sun, May 2018, Online.Google Scholar
Redden, Jim. Snitch Culture: How Citizens Are Turned into the Eyes and Ears of the State. Venice, California: Feral House, 2000.Google Scholar
Reeves, Joshua. Citizen Spies: The Long Rise of America’s Surveillance Society. New York: New York University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Regoeczi, Wendy C., Jarvis, John, and Riedel, Marc. “Clearing Murders: Is It about Time?Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 45, no. 2 (2008): 142162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Regoeczi, Wendy C., and Jarvis, John P.. “Beyond the Social Production of Homicide Rates: Extending Social Disorganization Theory to Explain Homicide Case Outcomes.” Justice Quarterly 30, no. 6 (2013): 9831014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rich, Steven, Mellnik, Ted, and Lowery, Wesley. “Homicide Database: Mapping Unsolved Murders in Major U.S. Cities,” June 2018. Washington Post. Accessed March 30, 2020. https://github.com/washingtonpost/data-homicides.Google Scholar
Riddick, John F. The Boogeyman of Baltimore. Baltimore: My Story, 2015. Riedel, Marc. “Homicide Arrest Clearances: A Review of the Literature.” Sociology Compass 2, no. 4 (2008): 1145–1164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rios, Victor M. Punished: Policing the Lives of Black and Latino Boys. New York: New York University Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Risk Perception: Theory, Strategies, and Next Steps. Policy Report. Campbell Institute, 2014.Google Scholar
Risse, Thomas, and Stollenwerk, Eric. “Legitimacy in Areas of Limited Statehood.” Annual Review of Political Science 21, no. 1 (2018): 403418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Sandra. “San Francisco Pays Gang Members $500-a-Month to Stop Shooting Each Other,” September 2021. Accessed March 21, 2023. https://sandrarose.com/2021/09/san-francisco-pays-gang-members-500-a-month-to-stop-shooting-each-other.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, Richard. Documenting and Explaining the 2015 Homicide Rise: Research Directions. Policy Report. National Institute of Justice, June 2016.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, Richard, Jacobs, Bruce A., and Wright, Richard. “Snitching and the Code of the Street.” British Journal of Criminology 43, no. 2 (2003): 291309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roser, Max, and Ritchie, Hannah. “Homicides,” December 2019. Our World in Data. Accessed October 8, 2021. https://ourworldindata.org/homicides.Google Scholar
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Social Contract: Or, the Principles of Political Rights. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1893.Google Scholar
Saco, Larissa, and Dirks, Danielle. “Closure and Justice: A Qualitative Study of Perspectives from Homicide Survivorship Experts.” Violence and Victims 33, no. 5 (2018): 830854.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saga, Junichi. Confessions of a Yakuza: A Life in Japan’s Underworld. Trans. Bester, John. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1991.Google Scholar
Saghir, Jamal, and Santoro, Jena. Urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa. Policy Report. Center for Strategic & International Studies, April 2018.Google Scholar
Saisana, Michaela, and Saltelli, Andrea. JRC Statistical Audit of the WJP Rule of Law Index 2014. Report. Ispra, Italy: Econometrics and Applied Statistics Unit at the European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2014.Google Scholar
Sampson, Robert J., and Jeglum Bartusch, Dawn. “Legal Cynicism and (Subcultural?) Tolerance of Deviance: The Neighborhood Context of Racial Differences.” Law & Society Review 32, no. 4 (1998): 777804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanchez-Jankowski, Martin. Islands in the Street: Gangs and American Urban Society. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santos, Nina dos. “Sicilians Turn on Mafia, Saying No to ‘pizzo’,” 2017. Accessed August 13, 2018. https://edition.cnn.com/2017/08/04/europe/sicilians-mafia-pizzo/index.html.Google Scholar
Saul, Josh. “Chicago’s Murder Rate Keeps Rising and the Gangs Can’t Be Stopped.” Newsweek, December 2016.Google Scholar
Schaible, Lonnie M., and Hughes, Lorine A.. “Neighborhood Disadvantage and Reliance on the Police.” Crime & Delinquency 58, no. 2 (2012): 245274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schelling, Thomas C. Micromotives and Macrobehavior. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2006.Google Scholar
Schelling, Thomas C. The Strategy of Conflict. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Schensul, Jean J., and LeCompte, Margaret D., eds. Essential Ethnographic Methods: A Mixed Methods Approach. Lanham, Maryland: AltaMira Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Seawright, Jason. Multi-Method Social Science: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Tools. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seawright, Jason, and Gerring, John. “Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options.” Political Research Quarterly 61, no. 2 (2008): 294308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Los Cabos, la ciudad más violenta del mundo; Caracas segunda y Acapulco tercera,” 2018. Seguridad, Justicia y Paz. Accessed April 5, 2019. www.seguridadjusticiaypaz.org.mx/ranking-de-ciudades-2017.Google Scholar
Semuels, Alana. “How to Fix a Broken Police Department.” The Atlantic, May 2015.Google Scholar
Shaer, Mathew. “Vigilante Justice and the Jews.” The Forward, May 2012. Shapiro, Jacob N., and Nils B. Weidmann. “Is the Phone Mightier than the Sword? Cellphones and Insurgent Violence in Iraq.” International Organization 69, no. 2 (2015): 247274.Google Scholar
Shaver, Andrew. Information and Communication Technologies, Wartime Informing, and Insurgent Violence. HiCN Working Paper 215. Households in Conflict Network, April 2016.Google Scholar
Shaver, Andrew, and Shapiro, Jacob N.. The Effect of Civilian Casualties on Wartime Information: Evidence from the Iraq War. HiCN Working Paper 210. Households in Conflict Network, February 2016.Google Scholar
“About,” 2021. Shomrim of Baltimore. Accessed November 8, 2021. http://shomrim.net/about.Google Scholar
Siddiqui, Niloufer A. Under the Gun: Political Parties and Violence in Pakistan. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, David. “David Simon on Baltimore’s Anguish,” April 2015. Interview by Bill Keller. Accessed October 8, 2021. www.themarshallproject.org/2015/04/29/david-simon-on-baltimore-s-anguish.Google Scholar
Simon, David. Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets. New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2006.Google Scholar
Simons, Marlise. “Milan and the Mafia: Who Has a Line on Whom?The New York Times, July 1991, Online.Google Scholar
Sistema de medición de la impunidad en Guatemala. Policy Report. Comisión Internacional contra la Impunidad en Guatemala, 2015.Google Scholar
Skarbek, David. “Covenants without the Sword? Comparing Prison Self-Governance Globally.” American Political Science Review 110, no. 4 (2016): 845862.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skarbek, David. “Governance and Prison Gangs.” American Political Science Review 105, no. 4 (2011): 702716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skarbek, David. The Social Order of the Underworld: How Prison Gangs Govern the American Penal System. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Stop Snitchin Part 1 of 4,” July 2013. Skinny suge. Accessed April 2, 2020. www.youtube.com/watch?v=KIP4RRSfCiQ.Google Scholar
Skogan, Wesley G., and Maxfield, Michael G.. Coping with Crime: Victimization, Fear, and Reactions to Crime in Three American Cities. Reactions to Crime Project. Northwestern Univeristy Center for Urban Affiars, June 1980.Google Scholar
Slater, Mel, Aitor Rovira, Richard Southern, David Swapp, Jian J. Zhang, Claire Campbell, and Levine, Mark. “Bystander Responses to a Violent Incident in an Immersive Virtual Environment.” PLoS ONE 8, no. 1 (2013).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slocum, Ann Lee, Taylor, Terrance J., Brick, Bradley T., and Es-bensen, Finn-Aage. “Neighborhood Structural Characteristics, Individual-Level Attitudes, and Youths’ Crime Reporting Intentions.” Criminology 48, no. 4 (2010): 10631100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slovic, Paul. “Perception of Risk.” Science 236, no. 4799 (1987): 280285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slovic, Paul, Finucane, Melissa L., Peters, Ellen, and MacGregor, Donald G.. “Risk as Analysis and Risk as Feelings: Some Thoughts about Affect, Reason, Risk, and Rationality.” Risk Analysis 24, no. 2 (2004): 311322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Somer, Jonathan. “Jungle Justice: Passing Sentence on the Equality of Belligerents in Non-International Armed Conflict.” International Review of the Red Cross 89, no. 867 (2007): 655690.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soss, Joe, and Weaver, Vesla. “Police Are Our Government: Politics, Political Science, and the Policing of Race–Class Subjugated Communities.” Annual Review of Political Science 20, no. 1 (2017): 565591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soyinka, Wole. The Beatification of Area Boy: A Lagosian Kaleidoscope. London: Methuen Drama, 1995.Google Scholar
Stephenson, Svetlana. Gangs of Russia: From the Streets to the Corridors of Power. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Global Terrorism Database,” 2023. Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. Accessed March 30, 2023. www.start.umd.edu/gtd.Google Scholar
Sunshine, Jason, and Tyler, Tom R.. “The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing.” Law & Society Review 37, no. 3 (2003): 513548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sweeney, James. Dead Man Incorporated (DMI). Technical report. Self-Published.Google Scholar
Taleb, Nassim Nicholas. “How to Be Rational about Rationality,” August 2017. INCERTO. Accessed April 13, 2019. https://medium.com/incerto/how-to-be-rational-about-rationality-432e96dd4d1a.Google Scholar
Taleb, Nassim Nicholas. Skin in the Game: Hidden Asymmetries in Daily Life. New York: Random House, 2018.Google Scholar
Tankard, Margaret E., and Levy Paluck, Elizabeth. “Norm Perception as a Vehicle for Social Change.” Social Issues and Policy Review 10, no. 1 (2016): 181211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tankebe, Justice. “Public Cooperation with the Police in Ghana: Does Procedural Fairness Matter?Criminology 47, no. 4 (2009): 12651293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tankebe, Justice. “Viewing Things Differently: The Dimensions of Public Perceptions of Police Legitimacy. Public Perceptions of Police Legitimacy.” Criminology 51, no. 1 (2013): 103135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, Robert. “The Homicide Solve Rate in 2022? 14 Per Cent.” Trinidad Express Newspapers, November 2022, Online.Google Scholar
Thaler, Richard H., and Sunstein, Cass R.. Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness. New York: Penguin Books, 2009.Google Scholar
“Code of Hammurabi,” 2008. The Avalon Project. Accessed December 5, 2022. avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/hamframe.asp.Google Scholar
“Home,” 2011. The Baltimore Guardian Angels. Accessed November 8, 2021. https://baltimoreguardianangels.org.Google Scholar
Baltimore City Homicides,” December 2022. The Baltimore Sun. Accessed December 30, 2022. homicides.news.baltimoresun.com.Google Scholar
“Witness Protection and Anonymity,” 2017. The Crown Prosecution Service. Accessed May 21, 2017. www.cps.gov.uk/legal/v_to_z/witness_protection_and_anonymity/#a06.Google Scholar
Lurching Ahead.” The Economist, April 2013, Online.Google Scholar
Trends in Extortion Payments by Companies to Italy’s Mafia: Price of Protection.” The Economist, June 2018.Google Scholar
“Fragile States Index,” 2021. The Fund for Peace. Accessed October 11, 2021. https://fragilestatesindex.org/country-data.Google Scholar
The World’s Cities in 2016. Policy Report. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, September 2016.Google Scholar
Thompson, Derek. “Six Reasons the Murder Clearance Rate Is at an All-Time Low,” July 2022. Accessed November 19, 2022. www.msn.com/en-US/news/news/why-are-the-police-so-bad-at-solving-murders/ar-AAZjhL0.Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles. “War Making and State Making as Organized Crime.” In Bringing the State Back In, edited by Peter, B. Evans, Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, and Skocpol, Theda, pp. 169191. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tondo, Lorenzo. “‘No Peace without Justice’: Families of Italy’s Mafia Victims Wait for Closure.” The Guardian, July 2021, Online.Google Scholar
Trejo, Guillermo, and Ley, Sandra. Votes, Drugs, and Violence: The Political Logic of Criminal Wars in Mexico. Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trejo, Guillermo, and Ley, Sandra. “Why Did Drug Cartels Go to War in Mexico? Subnational Party Alternation, the Breakdown of Criminal Protection, and the Onset of Large-Scale Violence.” Comparative Political Studies 51, no. 7 (2018): 900937.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trejo, Guillermo, and Nieto-Matiz, Camilo. “Containing Large-Scale Criminal Violence through Internationalized Prosecution: How the Collaboration between the CICIG and Guatemala’s Law Enforcement Contributed to a Sustained Reduction in the Murder Rate.” Comparative Political Studies, November 2022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trudeau, Jessie. How Criminal Governance Undermines Elections. APSA Preprint. American Political Science Association, November 2022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsai, Lily L. When People Want Punishment: Retributive Justice and the Puzzle of Authoritarian Popularity. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“MOMENTS AGO: Baltimore’s #PublicEnemy #1 Taken into Custody by Patrol Officers after Tips from the Community Identify His Location,” December 2016. Twitter (@BaltimorePolice). Accessed February 27, 2020. https://twitter.com/BaltimorePolice/status/806709603723526144.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom, and Fagan, Jeffrey. “Legitimacy and Cooperation: Why Do People Help the Police Fight Crime in Their Communities?Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 6 (2008): 45.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. Why People Obey the Law. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Udom, Emmanuel. “Nigeria: Oshodi Crisis. Police, NURTW Brace for a Fight.” Daily Independent, March 2015, Online.Google Scholar
Ulmer, Jeffery T., and Johnson, Brian. “Sentencing in Context: A Multilevel Analysis.” Criminology 42, no. 1 (2004): 137178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Unintentional Drug-and Alcohol-Related Intoxication Deaths in Maryland, 2020. Policy Report. Maryland Department of Health, June 2021.Google Scholar
United Nations. The World’s Cities in 2018. Data Booklet. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2018.Google Scholar
United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. Technical report. United Nations, 2000.Google Scholar
68% of the World Population Projected to Live in Urban Areas by 2050, Says UN,” May 2018. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Accessed March 27, 2021. www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html.Google Scholar
“World Population Prospects 2022,” 2022. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Accessed January 21, 2023. https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Standard/CSV.Google Scholar
“Intentional Homicide,” 2022. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Accessed December 2, 2022. https://dataunodc.un.org/dp-intentional-homicide-victims.Google Scholar
50 of the Most Dangerous Cities in the World: Tijuana, Caracas, Cape Town.” USA Today, August 2019, Online.Google Scholar
Usman, Evelyn, Adelaja, Bose, and Onyegbula, Esther. “3 Killed, Vehicles Burnt as NURTW, Hoodlums Clash in Oshodi.” Vanguard, February 2015, Online.Google Scholar
Vaccaro, Antonino, and Palazzo, Guido. “Values against Violence: Institutional Change in Societies Dominated by Organized Crime.” Academy of Management Journal 58, no. 4 (2014): 10751101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Five Demands from #EndSARS Protesters.” Vanguard, October 2020, Online. Varese, Federico. Mafias on the Move: How Organized Crime Conquers New Territories. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Venkatesh, Sudhir. Gang Leader for a Day: A Rogue Sociologist Takes to the Streets. London: Penguin Books, 2008.Google Scholar
Viki, G. Tendayi, Michelle J. Culmer, Anja Eller, and Dominic Abrams. “Race and Willingness to Cooperate with the Police: The Roles of Quality of Contact, Attitudes Towards the Behaviour and Subjective Norms.” The British Journal of Social Psychology 45, Pt. 2 (2006): 285–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vinogradoff, Paul. Historical Jurisprudence. London: Oxford University Press, 1923.Google Scholar
Visch, Valentijn T., Ed Tan, S., and Molenaar, Dylan. “The Emotional and Cognitive Effect of Immersion in Film Viewing.” Cognition and Emotion 24, no. 8 (2010): 1439–1445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Visconti, Giancarlo. “Policy Preferences after Crime Victimization: Panel and Survey Evidence from Latin America.” British Journal of Political Science 50, no. 4 (2020): 14811495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vitale, Alex S. The End of Policing. New York: Verso, 2018.Google Scholar
Walsh, Anthony. “Evolutionary Psychology and the Origins of Justice.” Justice Quarterly 17, no. 4 (2000): 841864.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warner, Barbara D.Directly Intervene or Call the Authorities? A Study of Forms of Neighborhood Social Control within a Social Disorganization Framework*.” Criminology 45, no. 1 (2007): 99129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watkins, D. The Cook Up: A Crack Rock Memoir. New York: Grand Central Publishing, 2016.Google Scholar
Weber, Max. Politics as a Vocation. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1965.Google Scholar
Weeks, Kevin, and Karas, Phyllis. Brutal: The Untold Story of My Life Inside Whitey Bulger’s Irish Mob. New York: William Morrow Paperbacks, 2007.Google Scholar
Wellford, Charles, and Cronin, James. Analysis of Variables Affecting the Clearance of Homicides: A Multisite Study. Working Paper. 1999.Google Scholar
Wells, Carrie. “‘Public Enemy No. 1’ Wanted in Attack on 73-Year-Old Is Captured.” The Baltimore Sun, December 2016, Online.Google Scholar
Wenger, Yvonne. “Mayor Rawlings-Blake Says Gang Power Struggle Fueling Violence.” The Baltimore Sun, July 2015, Online.Google Scholar
Whitman, Julie, and Davis, Rob. Snitches Get Stitches: Youth, Gangs, and Witness Intimidation in Massachusetts. Policy Report. National Center for Victims of Crime, 2007.Google Scholar
Williams, Phil. “The Terrorism Debate over Mexican Drug Trafficking Violence.” Terrorism and Political Violence 24, no. 2 (2012): 259278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, Stanley Tookie, Becnel, Barbara, and Smiley, Tavis. Blue Rage, Black Redemption: A Memoir. New York: Touchstone, 2007.Google Scholar
Wilson, O. W. Police Administration. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950.Google Scholar
Wixted, John T., Mickes, Laura, and Fisher, Ronald P.. “Rethinking the Reliability of Eyewitness Memory.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 13, no. 3 (2018): 324335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, Elisabeth Jean. “The Ethical Challenges of Field Research in Conflict Zones.” Qualitative Sociology 29, no. 3 (2006): 373386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woods, Baynard. “Gun Trace Task Force Trial Testimony Reveals Cops Conspired to Sell Drugs Stolen from Pharmacies during the Baltimore Uprising.” Baltimore Beat, February 2018, Online.Google Scholar
Woods, Baynard, and Soderberg, Brandon. “In Baltimore, Police Officers Are the Bad Guys with Guns.” The New York Times, May 2019, Online.Google Scholar
“World Development Indicators,” 2018. World Bank. Accessed November 1, 2018. http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators. World Internal Security & Police Index 2016. Policy Report. International Peace Science Association, 2017.Google Scholar
“Methodology,” 2022. World Justice Project. Accessed March 23, 2023. https://worldjusticeproject.org/our-work/research-and-data/wjp-rule-law-index-2021/methodology.Google Scholar
Xie, Min, and Baumer, Eric P.. “Crime Victims’ Decisions to Call the Police: Past Research and New Directions.” Annual Review of Criminology 2, no. 1 (2019): 217240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, Carter. “Part I: Baltimore Is the U.S. Heroin Capital,” January 2006. Accessed March 3, 2019. https://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=92699.Google Scholar
Yaqui. “Christmas Sinaloa Style: Dispenses Delivered with the Name of ‘El Cholo Iván’,” December 2018. Accessed April 27, 2019. www.borderlandbeat.com/2018/12/christmas-sinaloa-style-dispenses.html.Google Scholar
Yashar, Deborah J. Homicidal Ecologies: Illicit Economies and Complicit States in Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ybarrondo, Paul. “How Homicide Cases Are Really Handled | Office of Justice Programs.” Law Enforcement Quarterly, July 1992, 1519.Google Scholar
Young, Lauren E.The Psychology of State Repression: Fear and Dissent Decisions in Zimbabwe.” American Political Science Review 113, no. 1 (2019): 140155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zahnow, Renee, Mazerolle, Lorraine, Wickes, Rebecca, and Corcoran, Jonathan. “Living near Violence: How Proximity to Violence Shapes Perceptions of Police Effectiveness and Confidence in Police.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 53 (November 2017): 138144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zelizer, Adam. Is Position-Taking Contagious? Evidence of Cue-Taking from Two Field Experiments in a State Legislature. Working Paper. 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zoorob, Michael. “Do Police Brutality Stories Reduce 911 Calls? Reassessing an Important Criminological Finding.” American Sociological Review 85, no. 1 (2020): 176183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zuckoff, Mitchell. “FBI in Denial as Bulger Breaks Drug Pact in Southie,” July 1998. Boston.com. Accessed November 17, 2018. archive.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/1998/07/23/fbi_in_denial_as_bulger_breaks_drug_pact_in_southie.Google Scholar