Introduction

Over the centuries, Berbers, Vandals, Phoenicians,Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottomans and Italiansoccupied Libya in a long history of authoritarianrule. Following independence in 1951, the monarchy(1951–69) and the Qaddafi regime (1969–2011)continued this tradition of author-itarianism. Afterthe February 17 Revolution ousted the Qaddafiregime, most of the newly created political bodiesexhibited authoritarian tendencies; however, none ofthem established legitimacy or a national presencein a fractured state. Instead, overlapping circlesof local and regional power and influence, includinglocal councils, ethnic groups, militias, tribes anda potpourri of religious movements, flourished,using traditional and non-traditional authoritarianmeasures to maintain control in their spheres ofinfluence. This chapter focuses on these circles ofinfluence, together with the ways in which they goabout exerting authoritarian control. In so doing,it highlights new political, technological, militaryand policing means of repression where found,including the extent to which outside powers haveimported both the latest military tactics andequipment and the latest forms of social mediasurveillance.

The February 17 Revolution

On 17 February 2011, a heavy-handed government responseto peaceful demonstrations in Benghazi led to callsthroughout the country for regime change. Five weekslater, Mustafa Muhammad Abd al-Jalil, a formerminister of justice under Qaddafi, announced theformation of the National Transitional Council(NTC). The NTC billed itself as the actinggovernment of Libya; however, this was something ofan illusion. During the civil war, real power restedwith the local councils and militias formed to oustthe Qaddafi regime (Wehrey 2018: 59–60, 174–5).

The end of the Qaddafi regime was followed bynationwide polls in July 2012 to elect a 200-memberGeneral National Congress (GNC). The Justice andConstruction Party (JCP), the political arm of theMuslim Brotherhood, and the National Forces Alliance(NFA), described in the Western media as a ‘liberal’political party, were the major political movementscontesting the elections. The polls were doublyremarkable in that they took place only nine monthsafter the overthrow of the Qaddafi regime, and theelectorate strongly supported moderate parties,reversing a regional trend in support of Islamistgroups. Of the eighty seats allocated to politicalparties, the NFA won thirty-nine and the JCP onlyseventeen (St John 2017: 303–4).