The culture-historical archaeology of the late nineteenth century was a response to growing awareness of geographical variability in the archaeological record at a time when cultural evolutionism was being challenged in western and central Europe by declining faith in the benefits of technological progress. These developments were accompanied by growing nationalism and racism, which made ethnicity appear to be the most important factor shaping human history. Nationalist fervor increased as spreading industrialization heightened competition for markets and resources. Toward the end of the century, it was encouraged by intellectuals who sought to promote solidarity within their own countries in the face of growing social unrest by blaming economic and social problems on neighboring states.

Early Interests in Ethnicity

National consciousness has a long history. Already in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it had played a significant role in the development of antiquarianism in northern and western Europe.