Book contents
- High-Risk Pregnancy: Management Options
- High-Risk Pregnancy: Management Options
- Copyright page
- Contents
- Contributors
- Section 1 Prepregnancy Problems
- Section 2 Early Prenatal Problems
- Section 3 Late Prenatal – Fetal Problems
- Section 4 Problems Associated with Infection
- Chapter 24 Hepatitis Virus Infections in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 23rd July 2019)
- Chapter 25 Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 23rd July 2019)
- Chapter 26 Rubella, Measles, Mumps, Varicella, and Parvovirus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Chapter 27 Cytomegalovirus, Herpes Simplex Virus, Adenovirus, Coxsackievirus, and Human Papillomavirus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Chapter 28 Parasitic Infections in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 15th June 2018)
- Chapter 29 Other Infectious Conditions in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Section 5 Late Pregnancy – Maternal Problems
- Section 6 Late Prenatal – Obstetric Problems
- Section 7 Postnatal Problems
- Section 8 Normal Values
- Index
- References
Section 5 - Late Pregnancy – Maternal Problems
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 November 2017
Book contents
- High-Risk Pregnancy: Management Options
- High-Risk Pregnancy: Management Options
- Copyright page
- Contents
- Contributors
- Section 1 Prepregnancy Problems
- Section 2 Early Prenatal Problems
- Section 3 Late Prenatal – Fetal Problems
- Section 4 Problems Associated with Infection
- Chapter 24 Hepatitis Virus Infections in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 23rd July 2019)
- Chapter 25 Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 23rd July 2019)
- Chapter 26 Rubella, Measles, Mumps, Varicella, and Parvovirus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Chapter 27 Cytomegalovirus, Herpes Simplex Virus, Adenovirus, Coxsackievirus, and Human Papillomavirus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Chapter 28 Parasitic Infections in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 15th June 2018)
- Chapter 29 Other Infectious Conditions in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Section 5 Late Pregnancy – Maternal Problems
- Section 6 Late Prenatal – Obstetric Problems
- Section 7 Postnatal Problems
- Section 8 Normal Values
- Index
- References
Summary
Imagine asking yourself the question, “How would I describe a typical pregnant woman who uses drugs?” You might reply that she comes from a different social class, cannot think beyond the pregnancy, uses jargon, and doesn’t listen or care about the welfare of the child. However, my experience when asking drug-using women what they thought about the typical obstetrician is that they say the doctor was from a different social class, could not think beyond the pregnancy, used jargon, and didn’t listen or care about the welfare of the child.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- High-Risk PregnancyManagement Options, pp. 779 - 1522Publisher: Cambridge University PressFirst published in: 2017
References
References
Cormier, RA, Dell, CA, Poole, N. Women and substance abuse problems. BMC Womens Health 2004; 4 (Suppl 1) :S8.
World Health Organization. Guidelines for the Identification and Management of Substance Use and Substance Use Disorders in Pregnancy. Geneva: WHO, 2014. www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/107130 (accessed September 2018).
Chasnoff, IJ, McGourty, RF, Bailey, GW, et al. The 4P’s Plus screen for substance use in pregnancy: clinical application and outcomes. J Perinatol 2005; 25: 368–74.
Calvo, N, Cannon-DeKreek, S. Two perspectives on use of 4P’s Plus© to screen pregnant women for alcohol and other drugs. The Source (National Abandoned Infants Assistance Resource Center) 2010; 20 (2). http://aia.berkeley.edu/ (accessed December 2015).
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2011 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-44, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 12-4713. Rockville, MD: SAMSHA, 2012.
Home Office. Drug misuse statistics. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/drug-misuse-declared (accessed March 2017).
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Clinical Guidance for Treating Pregnant and Parenting Women With Opioid Use Disorder and Their Infants. HHS Publication No. (SMA) 18-5054. Rockville, MD: SAMHSA, 2018. https://store.samhsa.gov/product/Clinical-Guidance-for-Treating-Pregnant-and-Parenting-Women-With-Opioid-Use-Disorder-and-Their-Infants/SMA18-5054 (accessed September 2018).
Wouldes, TA, Lagasse, LL, Derauf, C, et al. Co-morbidity of substance use disorder and psychopathology in women who use methamphetamine during pregnancy in the US and New Zealand. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 127: 101–7.
Frank, DA, Augustyn, M, Knight, WG, Pell, T, Zuckerman, B. Growth, development, and behavior in early childhood following prenatal cocaine exposure: a systematic review. JAMA 2001; 285: 1613–25.
Behnke, M, Eyler, FD, Warner, TD, et al. Outcome from a prospective, longitudinal study of prenatal cocaine use: preschool development at 3 years of age. J Pediatr Psychol 2006; 31: 41–9.
Hepburn, M. Drug use in pregnancy: a multidisciplinary responsibility. Hosp Med 1998; 59: 436.
Little, BB, Snell, LM, Trimmer, KJ, et al. Peripartum cocaine use and adverse pregnancy outcome. Am J Hum Biol 1999; 11: 598–602.
Janisse, JJ, Bailey, BA, Ager, J, Sokol, RJ. Alcohol, tobacco, cocaine, and marijuana use: relative contributions to preterm delivery and fetal growth restriction. Subst Abus 2014; 35: 60–7.
Calderon-Margalit, R, Qiu, C, Ornoy, A, Siscovick, DS, Williams, MA. Risk of preterm delivery and other adverse perinatal outcomes in relation to maternal use of psychotropic medications during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009; 201: 579.e1–8.
Wright, TE, Schuetter, R, Tellei, J, Sauvage, L. Methamphetamines and pregnancy outcomes. J Addict Med 2015; 9: 111–17.
Smith, LM, Lagasse, LL, Derauf, C, et al. The infant development, environment, and lifestyle study: effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure, polydrug exposure, and poverty on intrauterine growth. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 1149–56.
World Health Organization. Recommendations for the Prevention and Management of Tobacco Use and Second-Hand Smoke Exposure in Pregnancy. Geneva: WHO, 2013.
Scottish Executive. Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation 2006 Technical Report. Edinburgh: Scottish Executive, 2006.
NHS National Services Scotland, Information Services Division. ISD Scotland. www.isdscotland.org (accessed March 2017).
Shipton, D, Tappin, DM, Vadiveloo, T, et al. Reliability of self reported smoking status by pregnant women for estimating smoking prevalence: a retrospective, cross sectional study. BMJ 2009; 339: b4347.
Chasnoff, IJ, Wells, AM, McGourty, RF, Bailey, LK. Validation of the 4P’s Plus screen for substance use in pregnancy validation of the 4P’s Plus. J Perinatol 2007; 27: 744–8.
Baeza-Loya, S, Viswanath, H, Carter, A, et al. Perceptions about e-cigarette safety may lead to e-smoking during pregnancy. Bull Menninger Clin 2014; 78: 243–52.
Schauer, GL, Malarcher, AM, Babb, SD. Prevalence and correlates of switching to another tobacco product to quit smoking cigarettes. Nicotine Tob Res 2015; 17: 622–7.
Suter, MA, Mastrobattista, J, Sachs, M, Aagaard, K. Is there evidence for potential harm of electronic cigarette use in pregnancy? Birth Defects Res Part A Clin Mol Teratol 2015; 103: 186–95.
Roth, LK, Taylor, HS. Risks of smoking to reproductive health: assessment of women’s knowledge. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 184: 934–9.
Huxley, RR, Woodward, M. Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for coronary heart disease in women compared with men: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Lancet 2011; 378: 1297–305.
Raymond, EG, Mills, JL. Placental abruption: maternal risk factors and associated fetal conditions. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2009; 72: 633–9.
Gardosi, J, Madurasinghe, V, Williams, M, Malik, A, Francis, A. Maternal and fetal risk factors for stillbirth: population based study. BMJ 2013; 346: f108.
Hackshaw, A, Rodeck, C, Boniface, S. Maternal smoking in pregnancy and birth defects: a systematic review based on 173 687 malformed cases and 11.7 million controls. Hum Reprod Update 2011; 17: 589–604.
Weber, MA, Ashworth, MT, Risdon, RA, et al. The role of post-mortem investigations in determining the cause of sudden unexpected death in infancy. Arch Dis Child 2008; 93: 1048–53.
Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome; Moon, RY. SIDS and other sleep-related infant deaths: expansion of recommendations for a safe infant sleeping environment. Pediatrics 2011; 128: e1341–67.
Moon, RY, Fu, L. Sudden infant death syndrome: an update. Pediatr Rev 2012; 33: 314–20.
Office for National Statistics. Unexplained deaths in infancy, England and Wales 2015. Release date August 2017. www.ons.gov.uk/releases/unexplaineddeathsininfancyenglandandwales2015 (accessed September 2018).
American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. SIDS and other sleep-related infant deaths: updated 2016 recommendations for a safe infant sleeping environment. Pediatrics 2016; 138(5) pii: e20162938. doi: 10.1542/peds.2016-2938.
West, R. Time for a change: putting the Transtheoretical (Stages of Change) Model to rest. Addiction 2005; 100: 1036–9.
Pomerleau, CS, Zucker, AN, Stewart, AJ. Characterizing concerns about post-cessation weight gain: results from a national survey of women smokers. Nicotine Tob Res 2001; 3: 51–60.
Lumley, J, Chamberlain, C, Dowswell, T, et al. Interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; (3): CD001055.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Smoking: Stopping in Pregnancy and After Childbirth. Public Health Guideline 26. London: NICE, 2010. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ph26 (accessed March 2017).
Cooper, S, Lewis, S, Thornton, JG, et al. The SNAP trial: a randomised placebo-controlled trial of nicotine replacement therapy in pregnancy: clinical effectiveness and safety until 2 years after delivery, with economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess 2014; 18 (54): 1–128.
National Collaborating Centre for Women’s and Children’s Health (UK). Pregnancy and Complex Social Factors: A Model for Service Provision for Pregnant Women with Complex Social Factors. London: RCOG Press, 2010.
Fahy, SJ, Cooper, S, Coleman, T, Naughton, F, Bauld, L. Provision of smoking cessation support for pregnant women in England: results from an online survey of NHS Stop Smoking Services for Pregnant Women. BMC Health Serv Res 2014; 14: 107.
Hajek, P, West, R, Lee, A, et al. Randomized controlled trial of a midwife-delivered brief smoking cessation intervention in pregnancy. Addiction 2001; 96: 485–94.
Cahill, K, Hartmann-Boyce, J, Perera, R. Incentives for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; (5): CD004307.
Mamluk, L, Edwards, HB, Savović, J, et al. Low alcohol consumption and pregnancy and childhood outcomes: time to change guidelines indicating apparently ‘safe’ levels of alcohol during pregnancy? A systematic review and meta-analyses. BMJ Open 2017: e015410. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2016-015410.
Department of Health. Alcohol guidelines review. Report from the guidelines development group to the UK Chief Medical Officers. London: Department of Health, 2016.
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Alcohol and Pregnancy. Patient information leaflet. London: RCOG, 2015 (revised January 2018). www.rcog.org.uk/en/patients/patient-leaflets/alcohol-and-pregnancy (accessed September 2018).
Esser, MB, Hedden, SL, Kanny, D, et al. Prevalence of alcohol dependence among US adult drinkers, 2009–2011. Prev Chronic Dis 2014; 11: E206.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Arlington, VA: APA, 2013.
Sarkola, T, Eriksson, CJ, Niemelä, O, Sillanaukee, P, Halmesmäki, E. Mean cell volume and gamma-glutamyl transferase are superior to carbohydrate-deficient transferrin and hemoglobin-acetaldehyde adducts in the follow-up of pregnant women with alcohol abuse. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2000; 79: 359–66.
Bearer, CF. Markers to detect drinking during pregnancy. Alcohol Res Health 2001; 25: 210–18.
Joya, X, Friguls, B, Ortigosa, S, et al. Determination of maternal–fetal biomarkers of prenatal exposure to ethanol: a review. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2012; 69: 209–22.
Chang, G, Wilkins-Haug, L, Berman, S, et al. Alcohol use and pregnancy: improving identification. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 91: 892–8.
Russell, M, Martier, SS, Sokol, RJ, et al. Screening for pregnancy risk-drinking. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1994; 18: 1156–61.
Sokol, RJ, Martier, SS, Ager, JW. The T-ACE questions: practical prenatal detection of risk-drinking. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 160: 863–8.
Bush, B, Shaw, S, Cleary, P, Delbanco, TL, Aronson, MD. Screening for alcohol abuse using the CAGE questionnaire. Am J Med 1987; 82: 231–5.
Bottoms, SF, Martier, SS, Sokol, RJ. Refinements in screening for risk drinking in reproductive-aged women: The “NET” results. Alcoholism 1989; 13: 339.
Bush, K, Kivlahan, DR, McDonell, MB, Fihn, SD, Bradley, KA. The AUDIT alcohol consumption questions (AUDIT-C): an effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Ambulatory Care Quality Improvement Project (ACQUIP). Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158: 1789–95.
Burns, E, Gray, R, Smith, LA. Brief screening questionnaires to identify problem drinking during pregnancy: a systematic review. Addiction 2010; 105: 601–14.
Schenker, S. Medical consequences of alcohol abuse: is gender a factor? Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1997; 21: 179–81.
Bailey, BA, Sokol, RJ. Pregnancy and alcohol use: evidence and recommendations for prenatal care. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2008; 51: 436–44.
Patra, J, Bakker, R, Irving, H, et al. Dose–response relationship between alcohol consumption before and during pregnancy and the risks of low birthweight, preterm birth and small for gestational age (SGA): a systematic review and meta-analyses. BJOG 2011; 118: 1411–21.
Day, NL, Leech, SL, Richardson, GA, et al. Prenatal alcohol exposure predicts continued deficits in offspring size at 14 years of age. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2002; 26: 1584–91.
Andersen, AM, Andersen, PK, Olsen, J, Grønbæk, M, Strandberg-Larsen, K. Moderate alcohol intake during pregnancy and risk of fetal death. Int J Epidemiol 2012; 41: 405–13.
Floyd, RL, O’Connor, MJ, Sokol, RJ, Bertrand, J, Cordero, JF. Recognition and prevention of fetal alcohol syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 106: 1059–64.
Albertsen, K, Andersen, AM, Olsen, J, Grønbæk, M. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy and the risk of preterm delivery. Am J Epidemiol 2004; 159: 155–61.
Anderson, BL, Dang, EP, Floyd, RL, et al. Knowledge, opinions, and practice patterns of obstetrician-gynecologists regarding their patients’ use of alcohol. J Addict Med 2010; 4: 114–21.
Hannigan, JH, Armant, DR. Alcohol in pregnancy and neonatal outcome. Semin Neonatol 2000; 5: 243–54.
Lemoine, P, Harousseau, H, Borteyru, JP, Menuet, JC. Children of alcoholic parents: observed anomalies: discussion of 127 cases. Ther Drug Monit 2003; 25: 132–6.
Jones, KL, Smith, DW. Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy. Lancet 1973; 302: 999–1001.
May, PA, Gossage, JP. Estimating the prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome: a summary. Alcohol Res Health 2001; 25: 159–67.
Bertrand, J, Floyd, LL, Weber, MK; Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Prevention Team, Division of Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Guidelines for identifying and referring persons with fetal alcohol syndrome. MMWR Recomm Rep 2005; 54 (RR-11): 1–14.
Astley, SJ, Clarren, SK. Diagnosing the full spectrum of fetal alcohol-exposed individuals: introducing the 4-digit diagnostic code. Alcohol Alcohol 2000; 35: 400–10.
Victor, A, Wozniak, JR, Chang, PN. Environmental correlates of cognition and behavior in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. J Hum Behav Soc Environ 2008; 18: 288–300.
O’Leary, CM, Jacoby, PJ, Bartu, A, D’Antoine, H, Bower, C. Maternal alcohol use and sudden infant death syndrome and infant mortality excluding SIDS. Pediatrics 2013; 131: e770–8.
Whitlock, EP, Polen, MR, Green, CA, Orleans, T, Klein, J; U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Behavioral counseling interventions in primary care to reduce risky/harmful alcohol use by adults: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2004; 140: 557–68.
Bertholet, N, Daeppen, JB, Wietlisbach, V, Fleming, M, Burnand, B. Reduction of alcohol consumption by brief alcohol intervention in primary care: systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165: 986–95.
Crawford-Williams, F, Fielder, A, Mikocka-Walus, A, Esterman, A. A critical review of public health interventions aimed at reducing alcohol consumption and/or increasing knowledge among pregnant women. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015; 34: 154–61.
Bailey, BA, Sokol, RJ. Some pregnant women still don’t believe drinking is dangerous. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2014; 40: 85–6.
Floyd, RL, Jack, BW, Cefalo, R, et al. The clinical content of preconception care: alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug exposures. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008; 199 (6 Suppl 2): S333–9.
Holbrook, AM, Crowther, R, Lotter, A, Cheng, C, King, D. Meta-analysis of benzodiazepine use in the treatment of acute alcohol withdrawal. CMAJ 1999; 160: 649–55.
Suh, JJ, Pettinati, HM, Kampman, KM, O’Brien, CP. The status of disulfiram: a half of a century later. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2006; 26: 290–302.
Godel, JC, Pabst, HF, Hodges, PE, et al. Smoking and caffeine and alcohol intake during pregnancy in a northern population: effect on fetal growth. CMAJ 1992; 147: 181–8.
Castrén, O, Gummerus, M, Saarikoski, S. Treatment of imminent premature labour. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1975; 54: 95–100.
Haastrup, MB, Pottegård, A, Damkier, P. Alcohol and breastfeeding. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2014; 114: 168–73.
Ho, E, Collantes, A, Kapur, BM, Moretti, M, Koren, G. Alcohol and breast feeding: calculation of time to zero level in milk. Biol Neonate 2001; 80: 219–22.
Giglia, RC, Binns, CW, Alfonso, HS, Scott, JA, Oddy, WH. The effect of alcohol intake on breastfeeding duration in Australian women. Acta Paediatr 2008; 97: 624–9.
Jagodzinski, T, Fleming, MF. Postpartum and alcohol-related factors associated with the relapse of risky drinking. J Stud Alcohol Drugs 2007; 68: 879–85.
O’Leary, CM, Bower, C. Guidelines for pregnancy: what’s an acceptable risk, and how is the evidence (finally) shaping up? Drug Alcohol Rev 2012; 31: 170–83.
Mukherjee, RAS, Hollins, S, Abou-Saleh, MT, Turk, J. Low level alcohol consumption and the fetus. BMJ 2005; 330: 375–6.
Jones, TB, Bailey, BA, Sokol, RJ. Alcohol use in pregnancy: insights in screening and intervention for the clinician. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2013; 56: 114–23.
Carson, G, Cox, LV, Crane, J, et al. Alcohol use and pregnancy consensus clinical guidelines. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2010; 32 (8 Suppl 3): S1–31.
Bakhireva, LN, Savage, DD. Focus on: biomarkers of fetal alcohol exposure and fetal alcohol effects. Alcohol Res Health 2011; 34: 56–63.
Blanc, M, Daeppen, JB. [Does disulfiram still have a role in alcoholism treatment?] Rev Med Suisse 2005; 1: 1728–30, 1732–3.
Farrell, M, Howes, S, Taylor, C, et al. Substance misuse and psychiatric comorbidity: an overview of the OPCS National Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. Addict Behav 1998; 23: 909–18.
Jonas, JM, Gold, MS. Cocaine abuse and eating disorders. Lancet 1986; 1: 390–1.
Cazerta, M, Claro, HG, Andrade, FCDA, de Oliveira, MAF. Assessing the impact of alcohol, tobacco and illegal drugs on miscarriage among pregnant women in São Paulo, Brazil. Revista Terapia Ocupacional Universidade de São Paulo 2013; 23: 223–9.
Ness, RB, Grisso, JA, Hirschinger, N, et al. Cocaine and Tobacco Use and the Risk of Spontaneous Abortion. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 333–9.
Hulse, GK, Milne, E, English, DR, Holman, CD. Assessing the relationship between maternal cocaine use and abruptio placentae. Addiction 1997; 92: 1547–51.
Burkett, G, Yasin, SY, Palow, D, LaVoie, L, Martinez, M. Patterns of cocaine binging: effect on pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 372–8.
Messinger, DS, Bauer, CR, Das, A, et al. The maternal lifestyle study: cognitive, motor, and behavioral outcomes of cocaine-exposed and opiate-exposed infants through three years of age. Pediatrics 2004; 113: 1677–85.
Cordero, DR, Medina, C, Helfgott, A. Cocaine body packing in pregnancy. Ann Emerg Med 2006; 48: 323–5.
Jonsson, S, O’Meara, M, Young, JB. Acute cocaine poisoning. Am J Med 1983; 75: 1061–4.
Cruickshank, CC, Dyer, KR. A review of the clinical pharmacology of methamphetamine. Addiction 2009; 104: 1085–99.
Perez, JA, Arsura, EL, Strategos, S. Methamphetamine-related stroke: four cases. J Emerg Med 1999; 17: 469–71.
Grotta Della, S, Lagasse, LL, Arria, AM, et al. Patterns of methamphetamine use during pregnancy: results from the Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle (IDEAL) Study. Matern Child Health J 2010; 14: 519–27.
Dueñas-Garcia, OF. False-positive amphetamine toxicology screen results in three pregnant women using labetalol. Obstet Gynecol 2011; 118: 360–1.
Moritz, ML, Kalantar-Zadeh, K, Ayus, JC. Ecstacy-associated hyponatremia: why are women at risk? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2013; 28: 2206–9.
Kiblawi, ZN, Smith, LM, Diaz, SD, et al. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and neonatal and infant neurobehavioral outcome: results from the IDEAL study. Subst Abus 2014; 35: 68–73.
Draper, ES, Rankin, J, Tonks, AM, et al. Recreational drug use: a major risk factor for gastroschisis? Am J Epidemiol 2008; 167: 485–91.
Ladhani, NNN, Shah, PS, Murphy, KE. Prenatal amphetamine exposure and birth outcomes: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011; 205: 219.e1–7.
McElhatton, PR, Bateman, DN, Evans, C, Pughe, KR, Thomas, SH. Congenital anomalies after prenatal ecstasy exposure. Lancet 1999; 354: 1441–2.
Becker, JB, Hu, M. Sex differences in drug abuse. Front Neuroendocrinol 2008; 29: 36–47.
Rawson, RA, Gonzales, R, Obert, JL, McCann, MJ, Brethen, P. Methamphetamine use among treatment-seeking adolescents in Southern California: participant characteristics and treatment response. J Subst Abuse Treat 2005; 29: 67–74.
Zorick, T, Nestor, L, Miotto, K, et al. Withdrawal symptoms in abstinent methamphetamine-dependent subjects. Addiction 2010; 105: 1809–18.
Good, MM, Solt, I, Acuna, JG, Rotmensch, S, Kim, MJ. Methamphetamine use during pregnancy: maternal and neonatal implications. Obstet Gynecol 2010; 116: 330.
Slamberová, R, Charousová, P, Pometlová, M. Methamphetamine administration during gestation impairs maternal behavior. Dev Psychobiol 2005; 46: 57–65.
Degenhardt, L, Bruno, R, Topp, L. Is ecstasy a drug of dependence? Drug Alcohol Depend 2010; 107: 1–10.
McKetin, R, Copeland, J, Norberg, MM, et al. The effect of the ecstasy “come-down” on the diagnosis of ecstasy dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 139: 26–32.
Ayus, JC, Arieff, A, Moritz, ML. Hyponatremia in marathon runners. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 427–8.
Moritz, ML, Ayus, JC. 100 cc 3% sodium chloride bolus: a novel treatment for hyponatremic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis 2010; 25: 91–6.
Crome, IB, Kumar, MT. Epidemiology of drug and alcohol use in young women. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2007; 12: 98–105.
Schempf, AH, Strobino, DM. Illicit drug use and adverse birth outcomes: is it drugs or context? J Urban Health 2008; 85: 858–73.
Hudak, ML, Tan, RC; Committee on Drugs; Committee on Fetus and Newborn, American Academy of Pediatrics. Neonatal drug withdrawal. Pediatrics 2012; 129: e540–60.
Bass, PF. Neonatal abstinence syndrome. Contemp Pediatr 2015; 32: 26.
Wolff, K, Boys, A, Rostami-Hodjegan, A, Hay, A, Raistrick, D. Changes to methadone clearance during pregnancy. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2005; 61: 763–8.
Jones, HE, O’Grady, KE, Malfi, D, Tuten, M. Methadone maintenance vs. methadone taper during pregnancy: maternal and neonatal outcomes. Am J Addict 2008; 17: 372–86.
Young, JL, Martin, PR. Treatment of opioid dependence in the setting of pregnancy. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2012; 35: 441–60.
Bell, JR, Butler, B, Lawrance, A, Batey, R, Salmelainen, P. Comparing overdose mortality associated with methadone and buprenorphine treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009; 104: 73–7.
Mattick, RP, Breen, C, Kimber, J, Davoli, M. Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; (2): CD002207.
Concheiro, M, Jones, HE, Johnson, RE, Choo, R, Huestis, MA. Preliminary buprenorphine sublingual tablet pharmacokinetic data in plasma, oral fluid, and sweat during treatment of opioid-dependent pregnant women. Ther Drug Monit 2011; 33: 619–26.
Welle-Strand, GK, Skurtveit, S, Jansson, LM, et al. Breastfeeding reduces the need for withdrawal treatment in opioid-exposed infants. Acta Paediatr 2013; 102: 1060–6.
Gaalema, DE, Heil, SH, Badger, GJ, Metayer, JS, Johnston, AM. Time to initiation of treatment for neonatal abstinence syndrome in neonates exposed in utero to buprenorphine or methadone. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 133: 266–9.
Jones, HE, Kaltenbach, K, Heil, SH, et al. Neonatal abstinence syndrome after methadone or buprenorphine exposure. N Engl J Med 2010; 363: 2320–31.
Finnegan, LP, Michael, H, Leifer, B, Desai, S. An evaluation of neonatal abstinence treatment modalities. NIDA Res Monogr 1984; 49: 282–8.
Jones, HE. Treating opioid use disorders during pregnancy: historical, current, and future directions. Subst Abus 2013; 34: 89–91.
Pétursson, H. The benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome. Addiction 1994; 89: 1455–9.
Dolovich, LR, Addis, A, Vaillancourt, JMR, et al. Benzodiazepine use in pregnancy and major malformations or oral cleft: meta-analysis of cohort and case–control studies. BMJ 1998; 317: 839–43.
Enato, E, Moretti, M, Koren, G. The fetal safety of benzodiazepines: an updated meta-analysis. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2011; 33: 46–8.
McElhatton, PR. The effects of benzodiazepine use during pregnancy and lactation. Reprod Toxicol 1994; 8: 461–75.
Cruz, SL. The latest evidence in the neuroscience of solvent misuse: an article written for service providers. Subst Use Misuse 2011; 46 (Suppl 1): 62–7.
Hannigan, JH, Bowen, SE. Reproductive toxicology and teratology of abused toluene. Syst Biol Reprod Med 2010; 56: 184–200.
Bowen, SE. Two serious and challenging medical complications associated with volatile substance misuse: sudden sniffing death and fetal solvent syndrome. Subst Use Misuse 2011; 46 (Suppl 1): 68–72.
Further Reading
Bleyer, WA, Breckenridge, RT. Studies on the detection of adverse drug reactions in the newborn. II. The effects of prenatal aspirin on newborn hemostasis. JAMA 1970; 213: 2049–53.
Clayton-Smith, J, Donnai, D. Human malformations. In Rimoin, DL, Connor, JM, Pyeritz, RE (eds), Emery and Rimoin’s Principles and Practice of Medical Genetics, 3rd edn. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone, 1996, p. 383.
Einarson, A, Pistelli, A, DeSantis, M, et al. Evaluation of the risk of congenital cardiovascular defects associated with use of paroxetine during pregnancy. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165: 749–52.
Holmes, LB. Teratogen-induced limb defects. Am J Med Genet 2002; 112: 297–303.
Marks, PW. Management of thromboembolism in pregnancy. Semin Perinatol 2007; 31: 227–31.
Matheson, I, Samseth, M, Sande, HA. Ampicillin in breast milk during puerperal infections. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1988; 34: 657–9.
Slone, D, Shapiro, S, Miettinen, O. Case–control surveillance of serious illnesses attributable to ambulatory drug use. In Colombo, F, Shapiro, S, Slone, D, Tognoni, G (eds), Epidemiological Evaluation of Drugs. Amsterdam: Elsevier-North Holland Biomedical, 1977, pp. 59–70.
Spinillo, A, Viazzo, F, Colleoni, R, et al. Two-year infant neurodevelopmental outcome after single or multiple antenatal courses of corticosteroids to prevent complications of prematurity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 191: 217–24.
Teixeira, NA, Lopes, RC, Secoli, SR. Developmental toxicity of lithium treatment at prophylactic levels. Braz J Med Biol Res 1995; 28: 230–9.
Weiner, CP, Mason, C. Drugs for Pregnant and Lactating Women, 3rd edn. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone, 2020.
References
Buhimschi, CS, Weiner, CP. Medications in pregnancy and lactation. In Queenan, JT, Spong, CY, Lockwood, CJ (eds), Management of High Risk Pregnancy. An Evidence Based Approach, 5th edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007, pp. 38–58.
Plentl, AA, Gray, MJ. Total body water, sodium space and total exchangeable sodium in normal and toxemic pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1959; 78: 472–8.
Verkeste, CM, Slangen, BF, Dubelaar, ML, et al. Mechanism of volume adaptation in the awake early pregnant rat. Am J Physiol 1998; 274: H1662–6.
Frederickson, MC. Physiologic changes in pregnancy and their effect on drug distribution. Semin Perinat 2001; 25: 120–3.
Spaanderman, ME, Meertens, M, van Bussel, M, et al. Cardiac output increases independently of basal metabolic rate in early human pregnancy. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2000; 278: H1585– 8.
Robson, SC, Hunter, S, Boys, RJ, et al. Serial study of factors influencing changes in cardiac output during human pregnancy. Am J Physiol 1989; 256: H1060–5.
Robson, SC, Mutch, E, Boys, RJ, et al. Apparent liver blood flow during pregnancy: a serial study using indocyanine green clearance. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990; 97: 720–4.
Everson, GT. Gastrointestinal motility in pregnancy. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1992; 21: 751–76.
American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (Practice Bulletin No. 52). Obstet Gynecol 2004; 103: 803–14.
Anderson, GD. Using pharmacokinetics to predict the effects of pregnancy and maternal–infant transfer of drugs during lactation. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2006; 2: 947–60.
Wood, M, Wood, AJ. Changes in plasma drug binding and alpha 1-acid glycoprotein in mother and newborn infant. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1981; 29: 522–6.
Shepard, TH, Lemire, RJ (eds). Catalog of Teratogenic Agents, 12th edn. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.
Chambers, C, Weiner, CP. Teratogenesis and environmental exposure. In Creasy, RK, Resnik, R, Iams, JD, et al. (eds), Creasy & Resnik’s Maternal Fetal Medicine. Principles and Practice, 6th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier, 2009, pp. 347–59.
Buhimschi, CS, Weiner, CP. Medications in pregnancy and lactation: Part 1. Teratology. Obstet Gynecol 2009; 113: 166–88.
Clayton-Smith, J, Donnai, D. Human malformations. In Rimoin, DL, Connor, JM, Pyeritz, RE (eds), Emery and Rimoin’s Principles and Practice of Medical Genetics, 3rd edn. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone, 1996, p. 383.
Cabrera, RM, Hill, DS, Etheredge, AJ, et al. Investigations into the etiology of neural tube defects. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today 2004; 72: 330–44.
Kozer, E, Nikfar, S, Costei, A, et al. Aspirin consumption during the first trimester of pregnancy and congenital anomalies: a meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 187: 1623–30.
Vermillion, ST, Scardo, JA, Lashus, AG, et al. The effect of indomethacin tocolysis on fetal ductus arteriosus constriction with advancing gestational age. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997; 177: 256–9.
Warkany, J. Warfarin embryopathy. Teratology 1976; 14: 205–9.
Vitale, N, De Feo, M, De Santo, LS, et al. Dose-dependent fetal complications of warfarin in pregnant women with mechanical heart valves. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 33: 1637–41.
Kaplan, LC. Congenital Dandy–Walker malformation associated with first trimester warfarin: a case report and literature review. Teratology 1985; 32: 333–7.
Carney, EW, Scialli, AR, Watson, RE, et al. Mechanisms regulating toxicant disposition to the embryo during early pregnancy: an interspecies comparison. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today 2004; 72: 345–60.
Giroux, M, Teixera, MG, Dumas, JC, et al. Influence of maternal blood flow on the placental transfer of three opioids: fentanyl, alfentanil, sufentanil. Biol Neonate 1997; 72: 133–41.
Ageno, W, Crotti, S, Turpie, AG. The safety of antithrombotic therapy during pregnancy. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2004; 3: 113–18.
Young, AM, Allen, CE, Audis, KL. Efflux transporters of the human placenta. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2003; 55: 125–32.
Schatz, M. The efficacy and safety of asthma medications during pregnancy. Semin Perinatol 2001; 25: 145–52.
Yerby, M. The use of anticonvulsants during pregnancy. Semin Perinatol 2001; 25: 153–8.
Sibai, BM. Antihypertensive drugs during pregnancy. Semin Perinatol 2001; 25: 159–64.
Newport, DJ, Wilcox, MM, Stowe, ZN. Antidepressants during pregnancy and lactation: defining exposure and treatment issues. Semin Perinatol 2001; 25: 145–58.
McCartney, MA, Scinto, PL, Wang, SS, et al. Developmental effects of phenytoin may differ depending on sex of offspring. Neurotoxicol Teratol 1999; 21: 119–28.
Boncinelli, E. Homeobox genes and disease. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1997; 7: 331–7.
Zakany, J, Duboule, D. The role of Hox genes during vertebrate limb development. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2007; 17: 359–66.
Faiella, A, Wernig, M, Consalez, GG, et al. A mouse model for valproate teratogenicity: parental effects, homeotic transformations, and altered HOX expression. Hum Mol Genet 2000; 9: 227–36.
Suzuki, A, Urushitani, H, Sato, T, et al. Gene expression change in the Müllerian duct of the mouse fetus exposed to diethylstilbestrol in utero. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2007; 232: 503–14.
Addis, A, Sharabi, S, Bonati, M. Risk classification systems for drug use during pregnancy: are they a reliable source of information? Drug Saf 2000; 23: 245–53.
Weiner CP. Introduction. In Weiner CP, Mason C (eds), Drugs for Pregnant and Lactating Women, 3rd edn. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier, 2020.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Viral hepatitis in pregnancy (Practice Bulletin No. 86). Obstet Gynecol 2007; 110: 941–56.
Sinclair SM, Jones JK, Miller RK, et al. The Ribavirin Pregnancy Registry: an interim analysis of potential teratogenicity at the mid-point of enrollment. Drug Saf 2017; 40: 1205–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40264-017-0566-6.
Chambers, CD, Braddock, SR, Briggs, GG, et al. Postmarketing surveillance for human teratogenicity: a model approach. Teratology 2001; 64: 252–61.
Mitchell, AA. Systematic identification of drugs that cause birth defects: a new opportunity. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 2556–9.
Kennedy, DL, Uhl, K, Kweder, SL. Pregnancy exposure registries. Drug Saf 2004; 27: 215–228.
Briggs, GG, Polifka, J; Research Committee, Organization of Teratology Information Specialists. Better data needed from pregnancy registries. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2009; 85: 109–11.
Källén, BA. Methodological issues in the epidemiological study of the teratogenicity of drugs. Congenit Anom (Kyoto) 2005; 45: 44–51.
Slone, D, Shapiro, S, Miettinen, O. Case–control surveillance of serious illnesses attributable to ambulatory drug use. In Colombo, F, Shapiro, S, Slone, D, Tognoni, G (eds), Epidemiological Evaluation of Drugs. Amsterdam: Elsevier-North Holland Biomedical, 1977, pp. 59–70.
Buhimschi, CS, Weiner, CP. Medications in pregnancy and lactation: Part 2. Drugs with minimal or unknown human teratogenic effect. Obstet Gynecol 2009; 113: 417–32.
Landon, MB. Diabetic nephropathy and pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2007; 50: 998–1006.
Tomlinson, AJ, Campbell, J, Walker, JJ, et al. Malignant primary hypertension in pregnancy treated with lisinopril. Ann Pharmacother 2000; 34: 180–2.
August, P, Mueller, FB, Sealey, JE, et al. Role of renin–angiotensin system in blood pressure regulation in pregnancy. Lancet 1995; 345: 896–7.
Easterling, TR, Carr, DB, Davis, C, et al. Low-dose, short-acting, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors as rescue therapy in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2000; 96: 956–61.
Tabacova, SA, Kimmel, CA. Enalapril: pharmacokinetic/dynamic inferences for comparative developmental toxicity. A review. Reprod Toxicol 2001; 15: 467–78.
Miller, RK, Jessee, L, Barrish, A, et al. Pharmacokinetic studies of enalaprilat in the in vitro perfused human placental lobule system. Teratology 1998; 58: 76–81.
Burrows, RF, Burrows, EA. Assessing the teratogenic potential of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in pregnancy. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1998; 38: 306–11.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Postmarketing surveillance for angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor use during the first trimester of pregnancy: United States, Canada, and Israel, 1987–1995. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1997; 46: 240–2.
Maliheh, K, Abdorrazagh, K, Armen, K, et al. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and aortic arch obstructive malformations. Indian J Med Sci 2006; 60: 417–20.
Boix, E, Zapater, P, Picó, A, et al. Teratogenicity with angiotensin II receptor antagonists in pregnancy. J Endocrinol Invest 2005; 28: 1029–31.
Cooper, WO, Hernandez-Diaz, S, Arbogast, PG, et al. Major congenital malformations after first-trimester exposure to ACE inhibitors. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 2443–51.
Laube, GF, Kemper, MJ, Schubiger, G, Neuhaus, TJ. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor fetopathy: long-term outcome. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2007; 92: F402–3.
Redman, CW, Kelly, JG, Cooper, WD. The excretion of enalapril and enalaprilat in human breast milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1990; 38: 99.
Devlin, RG, Fleiss, PM. Captopril in human blood and breast milk. J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 21: 110–13.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Use of psychiatric medications during pregnancy and lactation (Practice Bulletin No. 92). Obstet Gynecol 2008; 111: 1001–20.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Treatment with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy (Committee Opinion No. 354). Obstet Gynecol 2006; 108: 1601–3.
Cohen, LS, Altshuler, LL, Harlow, BL, et al. Relapse of major depression during pregnancy in women who maintain or discontinue antidepressant treatment. JAMA 2006; 295: 499–507.
Reefhuis, J, Devine, O, Friedman, JM, Louik, C, Honein, MA; National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Specific SSRIs and birth defects: Bayesian analysis to interpret new data in the context of previous reports. BMJ 2015; 351: h3190.
Howard, LM, Hoffbrand, S, Henshaw, C, et al. Antidepressant prevention of postnatal depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; (2): CD004363.
Heikkinen, T, Ekblad, U, Palo, P, Laine, K. Pharmacokinetics of fluoxetine and norfluoxetine in pregnancy and lactation. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2003; 73: 330–7.
Wen, SW, Yang, Q, Garner, P, et al. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 194: 961–6.
Malm, H, Klaukka, T, Neuvonen, PJ. Risks associated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 106: 1289–96.
Einarson, TR, Einarson, A. Newer antidepressants in pregnancy and rates of major malformations: a meta-analysis of prospective comparative studies. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2005; 14: 823–7.
Hendrick, V, Stowe, ZN, Altshuler, LL, et al. Placental passage of antidepressant medications. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 993–6.
Louik, C, Lin, AE, Werler, MM, et al. First-trimester use of selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors and the risk of birth defects. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 2675–83.
Bérard, A, Iessa, N, Chaabane, S, et al. The risk of major cardiac malformations associated with paroxetine use during the first trimester of pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2016; 81: 589–604.
Masarwa R, Bar-Oz B, Gorelik E, et al. Prenatal exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors and risk for persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and network meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2019; 220: 57.e1–57.e13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2018.08.030.
Einarson, A, Pistelli, A, DeSantis, M, et al. Evaluation of the risk of congenital cardiovascular defects associated with use of paroxetine during pregnancy. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165: 749–52.
Einarson, A. Risks/safety of psychotropic medication use during pregnancy: Motherisk Update 2008. Can J Clin Pharmacol 2009; 16: e58–65.
Chambers, CD, Johnson, KA, Dick, LM, et al. Birth outcomes in pregnant women taking fluoxetine. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 1010–15.
Bellissima V, Visser GHA, Ververs T, et al. Antenatal maternal antidepressants drugs treatment affects S100B levels in maternal-fetal biological fluids in a dose dependent manner. Clin Chim Acta 2020; 501 :20–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2019.11.027.
Zeskind, PS, Stephens, LE. Maternal selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor use during pregnancy and newborn neurobehavior. Pediatrics 2004; 113: 368–75.
Stowe, ZN, Hostetter, AL, Owens, MJ, et al. The pharmacokinetics of sertraline excretion into human breast milk: Determinants of infant serum concentrations. J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64: 73–80.
Hendrick, V, Fukuchi, A, Altshuler, L, et al. Use of sertraline, paroxetine and fluvoxamine by nursing women. Br J Psychiatry 2001; 179: 163–6.
Back, DJ, Bates, M, Bowden, A, et al. The interaction of phenobarbital and other anticonvulsants with oral contraceptive steroid therapy. Contraception 1980; 22: 495–503.
Crawford, P, Chadwick, D, Cleland, P, et al. The lack of effect of sodium valproate on the pharmacokinetics of oral contraceptive steroids. Contraception 1986; 33: 23–9.
Crawford, P. Interactions between antiepileptic drugs and hormonal contraception. CNS Drugs 2002; 16: 263–72.
Patsalos, PN, Berry, DJ, Bourgeois, BF, et al. Antiepileptic drugs— Best practice guidelines for therapeutic drug monitoring: a position paper by the subcommission on therapeutic drug monitoring, ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia 2008; 49: 1239–76.
McAuley, JW, Anderson, GD. Treatment of epilepsy in women of reproductive age: pharmacokinetic considerations. Clin Pharmacokinet 2002; 41: 559–79.
Leppik, IE, Rask, CA. Pharmacokinetics of antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy. Semin Neurol 1988; 8: 240–6.
Eberhard-Gran, M, Eskild, A, Opjordsmoen, S. Treating mood disorders during pregnancy: safety considerations. Drug Saf 2005; 28: 695–706.
Petrenaite, V, Sabers, A, Hansen-Schwartz, J. Individual changes in lamotrigine plasma concentrations during pregnancy. Epilepsy Res 2005; 65: 185–8.
Battino, D, Tomson, T. Management of epilepsy during pregnancy. Drugs 2007; 67: 2727–46.
Franco, V, Mazzucchelli, I, Gatti, G, et al. Changes in lamotrigine pharmacokinetics during pregnancy and the puerperium. Ther Drug Monit 2008; 30: 544–7.
Azarbayjani, F, Danielsson, BR. Embryonic arrhythmia by inhibition of HERG channels: a common hypoxia-related teratogenic mechanism for antiepileptic drugs? Epilepsia 2002; 43: 457–68.
Jäger-Roman, E, Deichl, A, Jakob, S, et al. Fetal growth, major malformations, and minor anomalies in infants born to women receiving valproic acid. J Pediatr 1986; 108: 997–1004.
Kjaer, D, Horvath-Puhó, E, Christensen, J, et al. Antiepileptic drug use, folic acid supplementation, and congenital abnormalities: a population-based case–control study. BJOG 2008; 115: 98–103.
Nakamura, H, Ushigome, F, Koyabu, N, et al. Proton gradient-dependent transport of valproic acid in human placental brush-border membrane vesicles. Pharm Res 2002; 19: 154–61.
Clayton-Smith, J, Donnai, D. Fetal valproate syndrome. J Med Genet 1995; 32: 724–7.
Lindhout, D, Omtzigt, JG, Cornel, MC. Spectrum of neural-tube defects in 34 infants prenatally exposed to antiepileptic drugs. Neurology 1992; 42: 111–18.
Kozma, C. Valproic acid embryopathy: report of two siblings with further expansion of the phenotypic abnormalities and a review of the literature. Am J Med Genet 2001; 98: 168–75.
Witters, I, Van Assche, F, Fryns, JP. Nuchal edema as the first sign of fetal valproate syndrome. Prenat Diagn 2002; 22: 834–5.
Pynnönen, S, Kanto, J, Sillanpää, M, et al. Carbamazepine: placental transport, tissue concentrations in foetus and newborn, and level in milk. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) 1977; 4: 244–53.
Matalon, S, Schechtman, S, Goldzweig, G, et al. The teratogenic effect of carbamazepine: a meta-analysis of 1255 exposures. Reprod Toxicol 2002; 16: 9–17
Moore, SJ, Turnpenny, P, Quinn, A, et al. A clinical study of 57 children with fetal anticonvulsant syndromes. J Med Genet 2000; 37: 489–97.
Webster, WS, Howe, AM, Abela, D, et al. The relationship between cleft lip, maxillary hypoplasia, hypoxia and phenytoin. Curr Pharm Des 2006; 12: 1431–48.
Hanson, JW, Smith, DW. The fetal hydantoin syndrome. J Pediatr 1975; 87: 285–90.
Iqbal, MM, Sohhan, T, Mahmud, SZ. The effects of lithium, valproic acid, and carbamazepine during pregnancy and lactation. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2001; 39: 381–92.
Myllynen, PK, Pienimäki, PK, Vähäkangas, KH. Transplacental passage of lamotrigine in a human placental perfusion system in vitro and in maternal and cord blood in vivo. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2003; 58: 677–82.
Cunnington, M, Ferber, S, Quartey, G; International Lamotrigine Pregnancy Registry Scientific Advisory Committee. Effect of dose on the frequency of major birth defects following fetal exposure to lamotrigine monotherapy in an international observational study. Epilepsia 2007; 48: 1207–10.
Fotopoulou, C, Kretz, R, Bauer, S, et al. Prospectively assessed changes in lamotrigine-concentration in women with epilepsy during pregnancy, lactation and the neonatal period. Epilepsy Res 2009; 85: 60–4.
Chaudron, LH. When and how to use mood stabilizers during breastfeeding. Prim Care Update Ob Gyns 2000; 7: 113–17.
Frey, B, Schubiger, G, Musy, JP. Transient cholestatic hepatitis in a neonate associated with carbamazepine exposure during pregnancy and breast-feeding. Eur J Pediatr 1990; 150: 136–8.
Shimoyama, R, Ohkubo, T, Sugawara, K, et al. Monitoring of phenytoin in human breast milk, maternal plasma and cord blood plasma by solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography. J Pharm Biomed Anal 1998; 17: 863–9.
Kessler, RC, Berglund, P, Demler, O, et al. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 593–602.
Iqbal, MM, Sobhan, T, Ryals, T. Effects of commonly used benzodiazepines on the fetus, the neonate, and the nursing infant. Psychiatr Serv 2002; 53: 39–49.
Belfort, MA, Anthony, J, Saade, GR. Prevention of eclampsia. Semin Perinatol 1999; 23: 65–78.
Duley, L, Gulmezoglu, AM. Magnesium sulphate versus lytic cocktail for eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001; (1): CD002960.
Duley, L, Henderson-Smart, D. Magnesium sulphate versus diazepam for eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; (4): CD000127.
Yaris, F, Kadioglu, M, Kesim, M, et al. Newer antidepressants in pregnancy: Prospective outcome of a case series. Reprod Toxicol 2004; 19: 235–8.
Eros, E, Czeizel, AE, Rockenbauer, M, et al. A population-based case-control teratologic study of nitrazepam, medazepam, tofisopam, alprazolum and clonazepam treatment during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2002; 101: 147–54.
Blotière PO, Raguideau F, Weill A, et al. Risks of 23 specific malformations associated with prenatal exposure to 10 antiepileptic drugs. Neurology 2019; 93: e167–80. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000007696.
Lim, EC, Seet, RC, Wilder-Smith, EP, et al. Dystonia gravidarum: a new entity? Mov Disord 2006; 21: 69–70.
Kanto, J, Erkkola, R. The feto-maternal distribution of diazepam in early human pregnancy. Ann Chir Gynaecol Fenn 1974; 63: 489–491.
Saxén, I. Cleft palate and maternal diphenhydramine intake. Lancet 1974; 1: 407–8.
Rosenberg, L, Mitchell, AA, Parsells, JL, et al. Lack of relation of oral clefts to diazepam use during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1983; 309: 1282–5.
Gonzalez de Dios, J, Moya-Benavent, M, Carratala-Marco, F. “Floppy infant” syndrome in twins secondary to the use of benzodiazepines during pregnancy. Rev Neurol 1999; 29: 121–3.
St. Clair, SM, Schirmer, RG. First-trimester exposure to alprazolam. Obstet Gynecol 1992; 80: 843–6.
García-Algar, O, López-Vílchez, MA, Martín, I, et al. Confirmation of gestational exposure to alprazolam by analysis of biological matrices in a newborn with neonatal sepsis. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2007; 45: 295–8.
Fisher, JB, Edgren, BE, Mammel, MC, et al. Neonatal apnea associated with maternal clonazepam therapy: a case report. Obstet Gynecol 1985; 66: 34S–35S.
McElhatton, PR. The effects of benzodiazepine use during pregnancy and lactation. Reprod Toxicol 1994; 8: 461–75.
Oo, CY, Kuhn, RJ, Desai, N, et al. Pharmacokinetics in lactating women: prediction of alprazolam transfer into milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 40: 231–6.
Kart Koseoglu, H, Yucel, AE, Kunefeci, G, et al. Cyclophosphamide therapy in a serious case of lupus nephritis during pregnancy. Lupus 2001; 10: 818–20.
Ozalp, SS, Yalcin, OT, Tanir, HM. A hospital-based multicentric study results on gestational trophoblastic disease management status in a developing country. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol 2001; 22: 221–2.
Peters, BG, Bray, JJ, Masidonski, P, et al. Issues surrounding adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer during pregnancy. Oncol Nurs Forum 2001; 28: 639–42.
Enns, GM, Roeder, E, Chan, RT, et al. Apparent cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan) embryopathy: a distinct phenotype? Am J Med Genet 1999; 86: 237–41.
Meirow, D, Epstein, M, Lewis, H, et al. Administration of cyclophosphamide at different stages of follicular maturation in mice: Effects on reproductive performance and fetal malformations. Hum Reprod 2001; 16: 632–7.
Paskulin, GA, Gazzola Zen, PR, de Camargo Pinto, LL, et al. Combined chemotherapy and teratogenicity. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2005; 73: 634–7.
Ostensen, M. Treatment with immunosuppressive and disease modifying drugs during pregnancy and lactation. Am J Reprod Immunol 1992; 28: 148–52.
Amato, D, Niblett, JS. Neutropenia from cyclophosphamide in breast milk. Med J Aust 1977; 1: 383–4.
Hammond, MG, Hammond, CB, Parker, RT. Conservative treatment of endometriosis externa: The effects of methyltestosterone therapy. Fertil Steril 1978; 29: 651–4.
Penteado, SR, Fonseca, AM, Bagnoli, VR, et al. Effects of the addition of methyltestosterone to combined hormone therapy with estrogens and progestogens on sexual energy and on orgasm in postmenopausal women. Climacteric 2008; 11: 17–25.
Borgatta, L, Murthy, A, Chuang, C, et al. Pregnancies diagnosed during Depo-Provera use. Contraception 2002; 66: 169–72.
Bianchi, S, Busacca, M, Agnoli, B, et al. Effects of 3 month therapy with danazol after laparoscopic surgery for stage III/IV endometriosis: a randomized study. Hum Reprod 1999; 14: 1335–7.
Shane, BS, Dunn, HO, Kenney, RM, et al. Methyl testosterone-induced female pseudohermaphroditism in dogs. Biol Reprod 1969; 1: 41–8.
Grote, K, Stahlschmidt, B, Talsness, CE, et al. Effects of organotin compounds on pubertal male rats. Toxicology 2004; 202: 145–158.
Tuffli, GA. Testosterone and micropenis. J Pediatr 1974; 84: 927.
Duck, SC, Katayama, KP. Danazol may cause female pseudohermaphroditism. Fertil Steril 1981; 35: 230–1.
Minh, HN, Belaisch, J, Smadja, A. Female pseudohermaphroditism. Presse Med 1993; 22: 1735–40.
Kingsbury, AC. Danazol and fetal masculinization: a warning. Med J Aust 1985; 143: 410–11.
Rosa, FW. Virilization of the female fetus with maternal danazol exposure. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984; 149: 99–100.
Baheiraei, A, Ardsetani, N, Ghazizadeh, S. Effects of progestogen-only contraceptives on breast-feeding and infant growth. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2001; 74: 203–5.
Ratchanon, S, Taneepanichskul, S. Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate and basal serum prolactin levels in lactating women. Obstet Gynecol 2000; 96: 926–8.
Kaya, H, Babar, Y, Ozmen, S, et al. Intratubal methotrexate for prevention of persistent ectopic pregnancy after salpingotomy. J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc 2002; 9: 464–7.
Kulier, R, Gulmezoglu, AM, Hofmeyr, GJ, et al. Medical methods for first trimester abortion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; (2): CD002855.
Creinin, MD, Wiebe, E, Gold, M. Methotrexate and misoprostol for early abortion in adolescent women. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 1999; 12: 71–7.
Gracia, CR, Brown, HA, Barnhart, KT. Prophylactic methotrexate after linear salpingostomy: a decision analysis. Fertil Steril 2001; 76: 1191–5.
Dilbaz, S, Caliskan, E, Dilbaz, B, et al. Predictors of methotrexate treatment failure in ectopic pregnancy. J Reprod Med 2006; 51: 87–93.
Yedlinsky, NT, Morgan, FC, Whitecar, PW. Anomalies associated with failed methotrexate and misoprostol termination. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 105: 1203–5
Del Campo, M, Kosaki, K, Bennett, FC, et al. Developmental delay in fetal aminopterin/methotrexate syndrome. Teratology 1999; 60: 10–12.
Sorosky, JI, Sood, AK, Buekers, TE. The use of chemotherapeutic agents during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1997; 24: 591–9.
Ostensen, M, Motta, M. Therapy insight: the use of antirheumatic drugs during nursing. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 2007; 3: 400–6.
Koren, G, Soldin, O. Therapeutic drug monitoring of antithyroid drugs in pregnancy: The knowledge gaps. Ther Drug Monit 2006; 28: 12–13.
Azizi, F. The safety and efficacy of antithyroid drugs. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2006; 5: 107–16.
Mestman, JH. Diagnosis and management of maternal and fetal thyroid disorders. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1999; 11: 167–75.
American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Thyroid disease in pregnancy (Practice Bulletin No. 37). Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2002; 79: 171–80.
Chattaway, JM, Klepser, TB. Propylthiouracil versus methimazole in treatment of Graves’ disease during pregnancy. Ann Pharmacother 2007; 41: 1018–22.
Takata, K, Kubota, S, Fukata, S, et al. Methimazole-induced agranulocytosis in patients with Graves’ disease is more frequent with an initial dose of 30 mg daily than with 15 mg daily. Thyroid 2009; 19: 559–63.
McNab, T, Ginsberg, J. Use of anti-thyroid drugs in euthyroid pregnant women with previous Graves’ disease. Clin Invest Med 2005; 28: 127–31.
Azizi, F, Khamseh, ME, Bahreynian, M, et al. Thyroid function and intellectual development of children of mothers taking methimazole during pregnancy. J Endocrinol Invest 2002; 25: 586–9.
Messer, PM, Hauffa, BP, Olbricht, T, et al. Antithyroid drug treatment of Graves’ disease in pregnancy: long-term effects on somatic growth, intellectual development and thyroid function of the offspring. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1990; 123: 311–16.
Nakamura, S, Nishikawa, T, Isaji, M, et al. Aplasia cutis congenita and skull defects after exposure to methimazole in utero. Intern Med 2005; 44: 1202–3.
Karg, E, Bereg, E, Gaspar, L, et al. Aplasia cutis congenita after methimazole exposure in utero. Pediatr Dermatol 2004; 21: 491–4
Johansen, K, Andersen, AN, Kampmann, JP, et al. Excretion of methimazole in human milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1982; 23: 339–41.
Cooper, DS. Antithyroid drugs: to breast-feed or not to breast-feed. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 157: 234–5
Azizi, F, Bahrainian, M, Khamseh, ME, et al. Intellectual development and thyroid function in children who were breast-fed by thyrotoxic mothers taking methimazole. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2003; 16: 1239–43.
Shepard, TH, Brent, RL, Friedman, JM, et al. Update on new developments in the study of human teratogens. Teratology 2002; 65: 153–61.
Suri, V, Sawhney, H, Vasishta, K, et al. Pregnancy following cardiac valve replacement surgery. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1999; 64: 239–46.
Marks, PW. Management of thromboembolism in pregnancy. Semin Perinatol 2007; 31: 227–31.
Vitale, N, De Feo, M, Cotrufo, M. Anticoagulation for prosthetic heart valves during pregnancy: the importance of warfarin daily dose. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2002; 22: 656.
Hall, JG, Pauli, RM, Wilson, KM. Maternal and fetal sequelae of anticoagulation during pregnancy. Am J Med 1980; 68: 122–40.
Tyagi, A, Bhattacharya, A. Central neuraxial blocks and anticoagulation: a review of current trends. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2002; 19: 317–29.
Zakzouk, MS. The congenital warfarin syndrome. J Laryngol Otol 1986; 100: 215–19.
Wesseling, J, Van Driel, D, Smrkovsky, M, et al. Neurological outcome in school-age children after in utero exposure to coumarins. Early Hum Dev 2001; 63: 83–95.
Dardick, KR. Warfarin during lactation. Conn Med 1980; 44: 693.
Orme, ML, Lewis, PJ, de Swiet, M, et al. May mothers given warfarin breast-feed their infants? Br Med J 1977; 1: 1564–5.
Carney, SM, Goodwin, GM. Lithium—A continuing story in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 2005; 426: 7–12.
Viguera, AC, Nonacs, R, Cohen, LS, et al. Risk of recurrence of bipolar disorder in pregnant and nonpregnant women after discontinuing lithium maintenance. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 179–84.
Gelenberg, AJ. Lithium efficacy and adverse effects. J Clin Psychiatry 1988; 49 (Suppl): 8–11.
Teixeira, NA, Lopes, RC, Secoli, SR. Developmental toxicity of lithium treatment at prophylactic levels. Braz J Med Biol Res 1995; 28: 230–9.
Pinelli, JM, Symington, AJ, Cunningham, KA, et al. Case report and review of the perinatal implications of maternal lithium use. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 187: 245–9.
Giles, JJ, Bannigan, JG. Teratogenic and developmental effects of lithium. Curr Pharm Des 2006; 12: 1531–41.
Jacobson, SJ, Jones, K, Johnson, K, et al. Prospective multicentre study of pregnancy outcome after lithium exposure during first trimester. Lancet 1992; 339: 530–3.
Cohen, LS, Friedman, JM, Jefferson, JW, et al. A reevaluation of risk of in utero exposure to lithium. JAMA 1994; 271: 146–50.
van Gent, EM, Verhoeven, WM. Bipolar illness, lithium prophylaxis, and pregnancy. Pharmacopsychiatry 1992; 25: 187–91.
Poels EMP, Bijma HH, Galbally M, Bergink V. Lithium during pregnancy and after delivery: a review. Int J Bipolar Disord 2018; 6: 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40345-018-0135-7.
Newmark RL, Bogen DL, Wisner KL, et al. Risk-Benefit assessment of infant exposure to lithium through breast milk: a systematic review of the literature. Int Rev Psychiatry 2019; 31: 295–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2019.1586657.
Viguera, AC, Newport, DJ, Ritchie, J, et al. Lithium in breast milk and nursing infants: Clinical implications. Am J Psychiatry 2007; 164: 342–5.
Eroglu, D, Oktem, M, Yanik, F, et al. Labor induction at term: a comparison of the effects of 50 microg and 25 microg vaginal misoprostol. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol 2007; 34: 102–5.
Dodd, JM, Crowther, CA, Robinson, JS. Oral misoprostol for induction of labour at term: Randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2006; 332: 509–13.
Zikopoulos, KA, Papanikolaou, EG, Kalantaridou, SN, et al. Early pregnancy termination with vaginal misoprostol before and after 42 days gestation. Hum Reprod 2002; 17: 3079–83.
American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. New U.S. Food and Drug Administration labeling on Cytotec (misoprostol) use and pregnancy (Committee Opinion. No. 283). Obstet Gynecol 2003; 10: 1049–50.
Alfirevic, Z, Weeks, A. Oral misoprostol for induction of labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006; (2): CD001338.
Vogel, D, Burkhardt, T, Rentsch, K, et al. Misoprostol versus methylergometrine: Pharmacokinetics in human milk. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 191: 2168–73
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 206: Use of Hormonal Contraception in Women With Coexisting Medical Conditions. Obstet Gynecol 2019; 133: e128–50. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003072.
Back, DJ, Breckenridge, AM, Crawford, F, et al. The effect of rifampicin on norethisterone pharmacokinetics. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1979; 15: 193–7.
Nora, JJ, Nora, AH. Can the pill cause birth defects (editorial)? N Engl J Med 1974; 291: 731–2.
Jellesen, R, Andersen, AM. Prenatal exposure to birth control pills: Risk of fetal death and congenital malformations. Ugeskr Laeger 2006; 168: 2437–42.
Pardthaisong, T, Gray, RH. In utero exposure to steroid contraceptives and outcome of pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 134: 795–803.
Yovich, JL, Turner, SR, Draper, R. Medroxyprogesterone acetate therapy in early pregnancy has no apparent fetal effects. Teratology 1988; 38: 135–44.
Abroms, L, Maibach, E, Lyon-Daniel, K, et al. What is the best approach to reducing birth defects associated with isotretinoin? PLoS Med 2006; 3: e483.
Brinker, A, Kornegay, C, Nourjah, P. Trends in adherence to a revised risk management program designed to decrease or eliminate isotretinoin-exposed pregnancies: evaluation of the Accutane SMART program. Arch Dermatol 2005; 141: 563–9.
Schaefer, C, Meister, R, Weber-Schoendorfer, C. Isotretinoin exposure and pregnancy outcome: an observational study of the Berlin Institute for Clinical Teratology and Drug Risk Assessment in Pregnancy. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2010; 281: 221–7.
Charakida, A, Mouser, PE, Chu, AC. Safety and side effects of the acne drug, oral isotretinoin. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2004; 3: 119–29.
Iagaru, A, McDougall, IR. Treatment of thyrotoxicosis. J Nucl Med 2007; 48: 379–89.
Pauwels, EK, Thomson, WH, Blokland, JA, et al. Aspects of fetal thyroid dose following iodine-131 administration during early stages of pregnancy in patients suffering from benign thyroid disorders. Eur J Nucl Med 1999; 26: 1453–7.
McClellan, DR, Francis, GL. Thyroid cancer in children, pregnant women, and patients with Graves’ disease. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1996; 25: 27–48.
Smithells, RW, Newman, CG. Recognition of thalidomide defects. J Med Genet 1992; 29: 716–23.
Kastritis, E, Palumbo, A, Dimopoulos, MA. Treatment of relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma. Semin Hematol 2009; 46: 143–57.
Srinivasan, R, Akobeng, AK. Thalidomide and thalidomide analogues for induction of remission in Crohn’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; (2): CD007350.
Panjwani, S. Early diagnosis and treatment of discoid lupus erythematosus. J Am Board Fam Med 2009; 22: 206–213.
Teo, SK, Harden, JL, Burke, AB, et al. Thalidomide is distributed into human semen after oral dosing. Drug Metab Dispos 2001; 29: 1355–7.
Holmes, LB. Teratogen-induced limb defects. Am J Med Genet 2002; 112: 297–303.
Rainsford, KD. Anti-inflammatory drugs in the 21st century. Subcell Biochem 2007; 42: 3–27.
Everson, GW, Krenzelok, EP. Chronic salicylism in a patient with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Pharm 1986; 5: 334–41.
Li, DK, Liu, L, Odouli, R. Exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and risk of miscarriage: Population based cohort study. BMJ 2003; 327: 368.
Kozer, E, Costei, AM, Boskovic, R, et al. Effects of aspirin consumption during pregnancy on pregnancy outcomes: meta-analysis. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol 2003; 68: 70–84.
James, AH, Brancazio, LR, Price, T. Aspirin and reproductive outcomes. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2008; 63: 49–57.
Nadar, S, Blann, AD, Lip, GY. Effects of aspirin on intra-platelet vascular endothelial growth factor, angiopoietin-1, and p-selectin levels in hypertensive patients. Am J Hypertens 2006; 19: 970–7.
Empson, M, Lassere, M, Craig, JC, et al. Recurrent pregnancy loss with antiphospholipid antibody: a systematic review of therapeutic trials. Obstet Gynecol 2002; 99: 135–44.
Di Nisio, M, Peters, L, Middeldorp, S. Anticoagulants for the treatment of recurrent pregnancy loss in women without antiphospholipid syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; (2): CD004734.
Farquharson, RG, Quenby, S, Greaves, M. Antiphospholipid syndrome in pregnancy: a randomized, controlled trial of treatment. Obstet Gynecol 2002; 100: 408–13.
Caritis, S, Sibai, B, Hauth, J, et al. Low-dose aspirin to prevent preeclampsia in women at high risk. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal–Fetal Medicine Units. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 701–5.
Vainio, M, Kujansuu, E, Iso-Mustajarvi, M, et al. Low dose acetylsalicylic acid in prevention of pregnancy-induced hypertension and intrauterine growth retardation in women with bilateral uterine artery notches. BJOG 2002; 109: 161–7.
Bujold, E, Roberge, S, Nicolaides, KH. Low-dose aspirin for prevention of adverse outcomes related to abnormal placentation. Prenat Diagn. 2014; 34: 642–8.
Acetylcysteine (Acetadote) for acetaminophen overdosage. Med Lett Drugs Ther 2005; 47: 70–1.
Sunshine, A, Olson, NZ, O’Neill, E, et al. Analgesic efficacy of a hydrocodone with ibuprofen combination compared with ibuprofen alone for the treatment of acute postoperative pain. J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 37: 908–15.
Wiebe, ER, Rawling, M. Pain control in abortion. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1995; 50: 41–6.
Anderson, DF, Phernetton, TM, Rankin, JH. The placental transfer of acetylsalicylic acid in near-term ewes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1980; 136: 814–18.
Martinez-Frias, ML, Rodriguez-Pinilla, E, Prieto, L. Prenatal exposure to salicylates and gastroschisis: a case-control study. Teratology 1997; 56: 241–3.
Kirshon, B, Moise, KJ Jr, Wasserstrum, N. Effect of acetaminophen on fetal acid-base balance in chorioamnionitis. J Reprod Med 1989; 34: 955–9.
Golden, NL, King, KC, Sokol, RJ. Propoxyphene and acetaminophen: possible effects on the fetus. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1982; 21: 752–4.
Adjei, AA, Gaedigk, A, Simon, SD, et al. Interindividual variability in acetaminophen sulfation by human fetal liver: implications for pharmacogenetic investigations of drug-induced birth defects. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2008; 82: 155–65.
Collins, E. Maternal and fetal effects of acetaminophen and salicylates in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1981; 58: 57S–62S.
Thomas, RL, Parker, GC, Van Overmeire, B, et al. A meta-analysis of ibuprofen versus indomethacin for closure of patent ductus arteriosus. Eur J Pediatr 2005; 164: 135–40.
Bar-Oz, B, Bulkowstein, M, Benyamini, L, et al. Use of antibiotic and analgesic drugs during lactation. Drug Saf 2003; 26: 925–35.
Bleyer, WA, Breckenridge, RT. Studies on the detection of adverse drug reactions in the newborn. II. The effects of prenatal aspirin on newborn hemostasis. JAMA 1970; 213: 2049–53.
Spigset, O, Hagg, S. Analgesics and breast-feeding: safety considerations. Paediatr Drugs 2000; 2: 223–38.
Mitchell, JL. Use of cough and cold preparations during breastfeeding. J Hum Lact 1999; 15: 347–9.
Watson-Jones, D, Gumodoka, B, Weiss, H, et al. Syphilis in pregnancy in Tanzania. II. The effectiveness of antenatal syphilis screening and single-dose benzathine penicillin treatment for the prevention of adverse pregnancy outcomes. J Infect Dis 2002; 186: 948–57.
Michelow, IC, Wendel, GD, Norgard, MV, et al. Central nervous system infection in congenital syphilis. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1792–8.
Ballard, RC, Berman, SM, Fenton, KA. Azithromycin versus penicillin for early syphilis. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 203–5.
Boyer, KM, Gotoff, SP. Prevention of early-onset neonatal group B streptococcal disease with selective intrapartum chemoprophylaxis. N Engl J Med 1986; 314: 1665–9.
Stauffer, UG. Tooth changes caused by tetracycline in the fetus, infant and child. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 1967; 97: 291–3.
Bothamley, G. Drug treatment for tuberculosis during pregnancy: safety considerations. Drug Saf 2001; 24: 553–65.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Updated recommendations for antimicrobial prophylaxis among asymptomatic pregnant women after exposure to Bacillus anthracis. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001; 50: 960.
Ludlam, H, Wreghitt, TG, Thornton, S, et al. Q fever in pregnancy. J Infect 1997; 34: 75–8.
El-Tabbakh, GH, Elejalde, BR, Broekhuizen, F. Primary syphilis and nonimmune fetal hydrops in a penicillin-allergic woman. A case report. J Reprod Med 1994; 39: 412–14.
Smith, JR, Taylor-Robinson, D. Infection due to Chlamydia trachomatis in pregnancy and the newborn. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1993; 7: 237–55.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee on Adolescent Health Care. Sexually transmitted diseases in adolescents (Committee Opinion No. 30). Obstet Gynecol 2004; 104: 891–8.
Connell, W, Miller, A. Treating inflammatory bowel disease during pregnancy: risks and safety of drug therapy. Drug Saf 1999; 21: 311–23.
Gulmezoglu, AM. Interventions for trichomoniasis in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; (3): CD000220.
Klebanoff, MA, Hauth, JC, MacPherson, CA, et al. Time course of the regression of asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy with and without treatment. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 190: 363–70.
Klebanoff, MA, Hillier, SL, Nugent, RP, et al.; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal–Fetal Medicine Units Network. Is bacterial vaginosis a stronger risk factor for preterm birth when it is diagnosed earlier in gestation? Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005; 192: 470–7.
Okun, N, Gronau, KA, Hannah, ME. Antibiotics for bacterial vaginosis or Trichomonas vaginalis in pregnancy: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 105: 857–68.
Hauth, JC, Goldenberg, RL, Andrews, WW, et al. Reduced incidence of preterm delivery with metronidazole and erythromycin in women with bacterial vaginosis. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 1732–6.
Carey, JC, Klebanoff, MA, Hauth, JC, et al. Metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery in pregnant women with asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 534–40.
Goldenberg, RL, Klebanoff, M, Carey, JC, et al. Metronidazole treatment of women with a positive fetal fibronectin test result. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 185: 485–6.
Klebanoff, MA, Carey, JC, Hauth, JC, et al. Failure of metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery among pregnant women with asymptomatic Trichomonas vaginalis infection. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 487–93.
Shennan, A, Crawshaw, S, Briley, A, et al. A randomised controlled trial of metronidazole for the prevention of preterm birth in women positive for cervicovaginal fetal fibronectin: the PREMET Study. BJOG 2006; 113: 65–74.
McGregor, JA, French, JI. Bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2000; 55(5 Suppl 1): S1–19.
Pacifici, GM. Placental transfer of antibiotics administered to the mother: a review. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 2006; 44: 57–63.
Elek, E, Ivan, E, Arr, M. Passage of penicillins from mother to foetus in humans. Int J Clin Pharmacol 1972; 6: 223–8.
Dashe, JS, Gilstrap, LC. Antibiotic use in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1997; 24: 617–29.
Klastersky-Genot, MT. Effects of tetracycline, administered during pregnancy, on the deciduous teeth: a double blind controlled study. Acta Stomatol Belg 1970; 67: 107–24.
Czeizel, AE, Rockenbauer, M. Teratogenic study of doxycycline. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 89: 524–8.
Polachek, H, Holcberg, G, Sapir, G, et al. Transfer of ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin and levofloxacin across the perfused human placenta in vitro. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2005; 122: 61–5.
Berkovitch, M, Pastuszak, A, Gazarian, M, et al. Safety of the new quinolones in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1994; 84: 535–8.
Peled, Y, Friedman, S, Hod, M, et al. Ofloxacin during the second trimester of pregnancy. DICP 1991; 25: 1181–2.
Heisterberg, L. Placental transfer of metronidazole in the first trimester of pregnancy. J Perinat Med 1984; 12: 43–5.
Nau, H. Clinical pharmacokinetics in pregnancy and perinatology. II. Penicillins. Dev Pharmacol Ther 1987; 10: 174–198.
Matheson, I, Samseth, M, Sande, HA. Ampicillin in breast milk during puerperal infections. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1988; 34: 657–9.
Hendeles, L, Trask, P. Tetracycline and lactation. J Am Dent Assoc 1983; 107: 12, 14.
Giamarellou, H, Kolokythas, E, Petrikkos, G, et al. Pharmacokinetics of three newer quinolones in pregnant and lactating women. Am J Med 1989; 87: 49S–51S.
Harmon, T, Burkhart, G, Applebaum, H. Perforated pseudomembranous colitis in the breast-fed infant. J Pediatr Surg 1992; 27: 744–6.
Passmore, CM, McElnay, JC, Rainey, EA, et al. Metronidazole excretion in human milk and its effect on the suckling neonate. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1988; 26: 45–51.
Wendel, PJ, Ramin, SM, Barnett-Hamm, C, et al. Asthma treatment in pregnancy: a randomized controlled study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 175: 150–4.
Pongrojpaw, D, Somprasit, C, Chanthasenanont, A. A randomized comparison of ginger and dimenhydrinate in the treatment of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. J Med Assoc Thai 2007; 90: 1703–9.
Aubé, M. Migraine in pregnancy. Neurology 1999; 53: S26–8.
Hay, TB, Wood, C. The effect of dimenhydrinate on uterine contractions. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1967; 7: 81–9.
Andrade, SE, Raebel, MA, Brown, J, et al. Outpatient use of cardiovascular drugs during pregnancy. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2008; 17: 240–7.
ACOG Task Force on Hypertension in Pregnancy. Hypertension in pregnancy: report of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Obstet Gynecol 2013; 122: 1122–31.
Williamson, JD, Supiano, MA, Applegate, WB, et al.; SPRINT Research Group. Intensive vs standard blood pressure control and cardiovascular disease outcomes in adults aged ≥75 years: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2016; 315: 2673–82.
Borghi, C, Esposti, DD, Cassani, A, et al. The treatment of hypertension in pregnancy. J Hypertens Suppl 2002; 20: S52–6.
Kirsten, R, Nelson, K, Kirsten, D, Heintz, B. Clinical pharmacokinetics of vasodilators. Part II. Clin Pharmacokinet 1998; 35: 9–36.
Livingstone, I, Craswell, PW, Bevan, EB, et al. Propranolol in pregnancy three year prospective study. Clin Exp Hypertens B 1983; 2: 341–50.
Scardo, JA, Vermillion, ST, Newman, RB, et al. A randomized, double-blind, hemodynamic evaluation of nifedipine and labetalol in preeclamptic hypertensive emergencies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 181: 862–6.
Hennessy, A, Thornton, CE, Makris, A, et al. A randomised comparison of hydralazine and mini-bolus diazoxide for hypertensive emergencies in pregnancy: the PIVOT Trial. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2007; 47: 279–85.
Vigil-De Gracia, P, Ruiz, E, López, JC, et al. Management of severe hypertension in the postpartum period with intravenous hydralazine or labetalol: a randomized clinical trial. Hypertens Pregnancy 2007; 26: 163–71.
Duley, L, Henderson-Smart, DJ, Meher, S. Drugs for treatment of very high blood pressure during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; (3): CD001449.
Caswell, HT, Marks, AD, Channick, BJ. Propranolol for the preoperative preparation of patients with thyrotoxicosis. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1978; 146: 908–10.
Sukenik, S, Biale, Y, Ben-Aderet, N, et al. Successful control of pheochromocytoma in pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1979; 9: 249–51.
Bott-Kanner, G, Schweitzer, A, Reisner, SH, et al. Propranolol and hydrallazine in the management of essential hypertension in pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1980; 87: 110–14.
Elhassan, EM, Mirghani, OA, Habour, AB, et al. Methyldopa versus no drug treatment in the management of mild pre-eclampsia. East Afr Med J 2002; 79: 172–5.
Gunenc, O, Cicek, N, Gorkemli, H, et al. The effect of methyldopa treatment on uterine, umblical and fetal middle cerebral artery blood flows in preeclamptic patients. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2002; 266: 141–4.
Houlihan, DD, Dennedy, MC, Ravikumar, N, et al. Anti-hypertensive therapy and the feto-placental circulation: effects on umbilical artery resistance. J Perinat Med 2004; 32: 315–19.
Olsen, KS, Beier-Holgersen, R. Fetal death following labetalol administration in pre-eclampsia. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1992; 71: 145–7.
Crooks, BN, Deshpande, SA, Hall, C, et al. Adverse neonatal effects of maternal labetalol treatment. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1998; 79: F150–1.
Hjertberg, R, Faxelius, G, Belfrage, P. Comparison of outcome of labetalol or hydralazine therapy during hypertension in pregnancy in very low birth weight infants. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1993; 72: 611–15.
Bowman, ML, Bergmann, M, Smith, JF. Intrapartum labetalol for the treatment of maternal and fetal thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid 1998; 8: 795–6.
Beardmore, KS, Morris, JM, Gallery, ED. Excretion of antihypertensive medication into human breast milk: a systematic review. Hypertens Pregnancy 2002; 21: 85–95.
Munshi, UK, Deorari, AK, Paul, VK, et al. Effects of maternal labetalol on the newborn infant. Indian Pediatr 1992; 29: 1507–12.
Reichmuth, D, Lockey, RF. Present and potential therapy for allergic rhinitis: a review. BioDrugs 2000; 14: 371–87.
Chanda, M, Mackenzie, P, Day, JH. Hypersensitivity reactions following laminaria placement. Contraception 2000; 62: 105– 6.
Stafford, CT, Lobel, SA, Fruge, BC, et al. Anaphylaxis to human serum albumin. Ann Allergy 1988; 61: 85–8.
Miller, AA. Diphenhydramine toxicity in a newborn: a case report. J Perinatol 2000; 20: 390–1.
American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Management of herpes in pregnancy (Practice Bulletin No. 82). Obstet Gynecol 2007; 109: 1489–98.
Scott, LL, Hollier, LM, McIntire, D, et al. Acyclovir suppression to prevent recurrent genital herpes at delivery. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2002; 10: 71–7.
Little, SE, Caughey, AB. Acyclovir prophylaxis for pregnant women with a known history of herpes simplex virus: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005; 193: 1274–9.
Kimberlin, DF, Weller, S, Whitley, RJ, et al. Pharmacokinetics of oral valacyclovir and acyclovir in late pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 179: 846–51.
Laerum, OD. Toxicology of acyclovir. Scand J Infect Dis Suppl 1985; 47: 40–3.
Sheffield, JS, Fish, DN, Hollier, LM, et al. Acyclovir concentrations in human breast milk after valaciclovir administration. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: 100–2.
Silver, RK, MacGregor, SN, Sholl, JS, et al. Comparative trial of prednisone plus aspirin versus aspirin alone in the treatment of anticardiolipin antibody-positive obstetric patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169: 1411–17.
Lieman, JM, Brumfield, CG, Carlo, W, et al. Preterm premature rupture of membranes: Is there an optimal gestational age for delivery? Obstet Gynecol 2005; 105: 12–17
Walfisch, A, Hallak, M, Mazor, M. Multiple courses of antenatal steroids: Risks and benefits. Obstet Gynecol 2001; 98: 491–7.
Garite, TJ, Kurtzman, J, Maurel, K, et al.; Obstetrix Collaborative Research Network. Impact of a “rescue course” of antenatal corticosteroids: a multicenter randomized placebo-controlled trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009; 200: 248.e1–9.
Egerman, RS, Mercer, BM, Doss, JL, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of oral and intramuscular dexamethasone in the prevention of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 179: 1120–3.
Gurbuz, A, Karateke, A, Ozturk, G, et al. Is 1-hour glucose screening test reliable after a short-term administration of antenatal betamethasone? Am J Perinatol 2004; 21: 415–20.
Elliott, JP, O’Keeffe, DF, Greenberg, P, et al. Pulmonary edema associated with magnesium sulfate and betamethasone administration. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979; 134: 717–19.
Mushkat, Y, Ascher-Landsberg, J, Keidar, R, et al. The effect of betamethasone versus dexamethasone on fetal biophysical parameters. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2001; 97: 50–2.
Wapner, RJ, Sorokin, Y, Thom, EA, et al.; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal Fetal Medicine Units Network. Single versus weekly courses of antenatal corticosteroids: Evaluation of safety and efficacy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 195: 633–42.
Fujii, Y, Uemura, A. Dexamethasone for the prevention of nausea and vomiting after dilatation and curettage: A randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2002; 99: 58–62.
Martin, JN, Thigpen, BD, Rose, CH, et al. Maternal benefit of high-dose intravenous corticosteroid therapy for HELLP syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 189: 830–4.
Fonseca, JE, Mendez, F, Catano, C, et al. Dexamethasone treatment does not improve the outcome of women with HELLP syndrome: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005; 193: 1591–8.
Addison, RS, Maguire, DJ, Mortimer, RH, et al. Metabolism of prednisolone by the isolated perfused human placental lobule. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1991; 39: 83–90.
Lockshin, MD, Sammaritano, LR. Corticosteroids during pregnancy. Scand J Rheumatol Suppl 1998; 107: 136–8.
Walker, BE. Induction of cleft palate in rats with antiinflammatory drugs. Teratology 1971; 4: 39–42.
Park-Wyllie, L, Mazzotta, P, Pastuszak, A, et al. Birth defects after maternal exposure to corticosteroids: Prospective cohort study and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Teratology 2000; 62: 385–92.
Carmichael, SL, Shaw, GM, Ma, C, et al.; National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Maternal corticosteroid use and orofacial clefts. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007; 197: 585.e1–7.
Effect of corticosteroids for fetal maturation on perinatal outcomes. NIH Consens Statement 1994; 12 (2): 1–24.
Spinillo, A, Viazzo, F, Colleoni, R, et al. Two-year infant neurodevelopmental outcome after single or multiple antenatal courses of corticosteroids to prevent complications of prematurity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 191: 217–24.
Huang, WL, Harper, CG, Evans, SF, et al. Repeated prenatal corticosteroid administration delays myelination of the corpus callosum in fetal sheep. Int J Dev Neurosci 2001; 19: 415–25.
Whitelaw, A, Thoresen, M. Antenatal steroids and the developing brain. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2000; 83: F154–7.
Rotmensch, S, Lev, S, Kovo, M, et al. Effect of betamethasone administration on fetal heart rate tracing: a blinded longitudinal study. Fetal Diagn Ther 2005; 20: 371–6.
Hayes, EJ, Paul, DA, Stahl, GE, et al. Effect of antenatal corticosteroids on survival for neonates born at 23 weeks of gestation. Obstet Gynecol 2008; 111: 921–6.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Committee Opinion: Antenatal corticosteroid therapy for fetal maturation. Obstet Gynecol 2002; 99: 871–3.
Mulder, EJ, Derks, JB, Visser, GH. Antenatal corticosteroid therapy and fetal behaviour: a randomised study of the effects of betamethasone and dexamethasone. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997; 104: 1239–47.
Costedoat-Chalumeau, N, Georgin-Lavialle, S, Amoura, Z, et al. Anti-SSA/Ro and anti-SSB/La antibody-mediated congenital heart block. Lupus 2005; 14: 660–4.
Hughes, I. Prenatal treatment of congenital adrenal hyperplasia: Do we have enough evidence? Treat Endocrinol 2006; 5: 1–6.
Brook, CG. Antenatal treatment of a mother bearing a fetus with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2000; 82: F176–81.
Leman, J, Burden, A. Treatment of severe psoriasis with infliximab. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2008; 4: 1165–76.
Teshima, CW, Thompson, A, Dhanoa, L, et al. Long-term response rates to infliximab therapy for Crohn’s disease in an outpatient cohort. Can J Gastroenterol 2009; 23: 348–52.
Allaart, CF, Breedveld, FC, Dijkmans, BA. Treatment of recent-onset rheumatoid arthritis: lessons from the BeSt Study. J Rheumatol Suppl 2007; 80: 25–33.
O’Donnell, S, O’Morain, C. Use of antitumour necrosis factor therapy in inflammatory bowel disease during pregnancy and conception. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008; 27: 885–94.
Mahadevan, U, Sandborn, WJ, Li, DK, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with inflammatory bowel disease: a large community-based study from Northern California. Gastroenterology 2007; 133: 1106–12.
Roux, CH, Brocq, O, Breuil, V, et al. Pregnancy in rheumatology patients exposed to anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha therapy. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2007; 46: 695–8.
Stengel, JZ, Arnold, HL. Is infliximab safe to use while breastfeeding? World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14: 3085–7.
References
Knight, M, Bunch, K, Tuffnell, D, et al.; MBRRACE-UK. Saving Lives, Improving Mothers’ Care: Lessons Learned to Inform Maternity Care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2015–17. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford, 2019.
Roberts, CL, Ford, JB, Algert, CS, et al. Population-based trends in pregnancy hypertension and pre-eclampsia: an international comparative study. BMJ Open 2011; 1: e000101.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Hypertension in Pregnancy: Diagnosis and Management. NICE Guideline NG133. London: NICE, 2019. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng133 (accessed August 2020).
National Committee for Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths. Saving Mothers 2017: annual report on confidential enquiries into maternal death in South Africa. Pretoria: Department of Health, 2018.
Capeless, EL, Clapp, JF. Cardiovascular changes in early phase of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynaecol 1989; 16: 1449–53.
Gerber, JG, Payne, HA, Murphy, RC, et al. Prostacyclin produced by the pregnancy uterus in the dog may act as a circulating vasodepressor substance. J Clin Invest 1981; 67: 632–6.
Duvekott, JJ, Cheriex, EC, Pieters, FA, et al. Early pregnancy changes in hemodynamics and volume homeostasis are consecutive adjustments triggered by a primary fall in systemic vascular tone. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169: 1382–92.
Wilson, M, Morganti, AA, Zervoudakis, I, et al. Blood Pressure, the renin-aldosterone system and sex steroids throughout normal pregnancy. Am J Med 1980; 68: 97–104.
Brown, MA, Lindheimer, MD, de Sweit, M, Van Assche, A, Moutquin, JM. The classification and diagnosis of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: statement from the International Society for the Study of Hypertension in Pregnancy (ISSHP). Hypertens Pregnancy 2001; 20 (1): ix–xiv.
Tranquilli, AL, Dekker, G, Magee, L, et al. The classification, diagnosis and management of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: a revised statement from the ISSHP. Pregnancy Hypertens 2014; 4: 97–104.
Franklin, SS, Thijs, L, Hansen, TW, et al. White-coat hypertension: new insights from recent studies. Hypertension 2013; 62: 982–7.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Hypertension in Adults: Diagnosis and Management. Clinical Guideline CG127. London: NICE, 2011. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg127 (accessed December 2017).
Pickering, TG, Hall, JE, Appel, LJ, et al. Recommendations for blood pressure measurement in humans and experimental animals: part 1. Circulation 2005; 111: 697–716.
Stone, P, Cook, D, Hutton, J, et al. Measurements of blood pressure, edema and proteinuria in a pregnant population of New Zealand. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1995; 35: 32–7.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Antenatal Care for Uncomplicated Pregnancies. Clinical Guideline CG62. London: NICE, 2008. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg62 (accessed December 2017).
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). Hypertension in Pregnancy. Washington, DC: ACOG, 2013. http://www.acog.org/Resources-And-Publications/Task-Force-and-Work-Group-Reports/Hypertension-in-Pregnancy (accessed March 2017).
Magee, LA, Pels, A, Helewa, M, Rey, E, von Dadelszen, P; Canadian Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy Working Group. Diagnosis, evaluation, and management of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: executive summary. SOGC Clinical Practice Guideline No. 307. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2014; 36: 416–41.
Nathan, HL, Duhig, K, Hezelgrave, NL, et al. Blood pressure measurement in pregnancy. TOG 2015; 17: 91–8.
O’Brien, E, Petrie, J, Littler, W, et al. The British Hypertension Society protocol for the evaluation of blood pressure measuring devices. J Hypertens 1993; 11 (Suppl 2): S43–62.
O’Brien, E, Pickering, T, Asmar, R, et al. Working Group on Blood Pressure Monitoring of the European Society of Hypertension International Protocol for validation of blood pressure monitoring devices in adults. Blood Press Monit 2002; 7: 3–17.
O’Brien, E, Atkins, N, Stergiou, G, et al. European Society of Hypertension International Protocol revision 2010 for the validation of blood pressure monitoring devices in adults. Blood Press Monit 2010; 15: 23–8. Erratum in: Blood Press Monit 2010; 15: 171–2.
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Self-Monitoring of Blood Pressure in Pregnancy: Information for Healthcare Professionals. Version 1. London: RCOG, 2020. www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/2020-03-30-self-monitoring-of-blood-pressure-in-pregnancy.pdf (accessed August 2020).
Lowe, SA, Bowyer, L, Lust, K, et al.; Society of Obstetric Medicine of Australia and New Zealand (SOMANZ). The SOMANZ guideline for the management of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy 2014. https://somanz.org/documents/HTPregnancyGuidelineJuly2014.pdf (accessed March 2017).
Holt, JL, Mangos, GJ, Brown, MA. Measuring protein excretion in pregnancy. Nephrology 2007; 12: 425–30.
Kyle, PM, Fielder, JN, Pullar, B, et al. Comparison of methods to identify significant proteinuria in pregnancy in the outpatient setting. BJOG 2008; 115: 523–7.
Saudan, PJ, Brown, MA, Farrell, T, et al. Improved methods of assessing proteinuria in hypertensive pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997; 104: 1159–64.
Ramos, JG, Martins-Costa, SH, Mathias, MM, et al. Urinary protein/creatinine ratio in hypertensive pregnant women. Hypertens Pregnancy 1999; 18: 209–18.
Waugh, J, Hooper, R, Lamb, E, et al. Spot protein-creatinine ratio and spot albumin-creatinine ratio in the assessment of pre-eclampsia: a diagnostic accuracy study with decision-analytic model-based economic evaluation and acceptability analysis. Health Technol Assess 2017; 21 (61): 1–90. doi: 10.3310/hta21610.
Webster, S, Waugh, JJS. Point-of-care testing in prenatal care. In Price, CP, St John, A, Kricka, LJ (eds), Point-of-Care Testing: Needs, Opportunity and Innovation, 3rd edn. Washington, DC: AACC Press, 2010, p. 471.
Brown, MA, Magee, LA, Kenny, LC, et al. The hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: ISSHP classification, diagnosis and management recommendations for international practice. Pregnancy Hypertens 2018; 13: 291–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preghy.2018.05.004.
Brown, MA, Buddle, ML. Inadequacy of dipstick proteinuria in hypertensive disease. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1995; 35: 366–9.
Bell, SC, Halligan, AW, Martin, A, et al. The role of observer error in antenatal dipstick proteinuria analysis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1999; 106: 1177–80.
Waugh, JJ, Bell, SC, Kilby, MD, et al. Optimal bedside urinalysis for the detection of proteinuria in hypertensive pregnancy: a study of diagnostic accuracy. BJOG 2005; 112: 412–17.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Gestational hypertension and preeclampsia: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 222. Obstet Gynecol 2020; 135: e237–60. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003891.
O’Brien, E, Parati, G, Stergiou, G, et al.; European Society of Hypertension Working Group on Blood Pressure Monitoring. European Society of Hypertension position paper on ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. J Hypertens 2013; 31: 1731–67.
Bateman, BT, Bansil, P, Hernandez-Diaz, S, et al. Prevalence, trends, and outcomes of chronic hypertension: a nationwide sample of delivery admissions. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2012; 206: 134.e1–8.
Roberts, CL, Bell, JC, Ford, JB, et al. The accuracy of reporting of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy in population health data. Hypertens Pregnancy 2008; 27: 285–97.
Brown, MA, Mangos, G, Davis, G, et al. The natural history of white coat hypertension during pregnancy. BJOG 2005; 112: 601–6.
Bramham, K, Parnell, B, Nelson-Piercy, C, et al. Chronic hypertension and pregnancy outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2014; 348: g2301.
Davison, JM, Nelson-Piercy, C, Kehoe, S, Baker, P. Renal Disease in Pregnancy: 54th RCOG Study Group. London: RCOG, 2008.
Redman, GW, Sargent, IL. Latest advances in understanding preeclampsia. Science 2005; 308: 1592–4.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Chronic hypertension in pregnancy. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 203. Obstet Gynecol 2019; 133: e26–50. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003020
Henderson, JT, Whitlock, EP, O’Connor, E, et al. Low-dose aspirin for prevention of morbidity and mortality from preeclampsia: a systematic evidence review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2014; 160: 695–70.
Askie, LM, Duly, L, Henderson-Smart, DJ, et al. Antiplatelet agents for prevention of pre-eclampsia: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet 2007; 369: 1791–8.
Duley, L, Henderson-Smart, DJ, Meher, S, et al. Antiplatelet agents for preventing pre-eclampsia and its complications. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; (2): CD004659.
Rolnik, DL, Wright, D, Poon, LC, et al. Aspirin versus placebo in pregnancies at high risk for preterm preeclampsia. N Engl J Med 2017; 377: 613–22. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1704559.
Wright, D, Rolnik, DL, Syngelaki, A, et al. Aspirin for evidence-based preeclampsia prevention trial: effect of aspirin on the length of stay in the neonatal intensive care unit. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2018; 218: 612.e1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2018.02.014.
Hofmeyr, GJ, Lawrie, TA, Atallah, AN, et al. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy for preventing hypertensive disorders and related problems. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014 (6): CD001059.
World Health Organization. Guideline: Calcium Supplementation in Pregnant Women. Geneva: WHO, 2013.
Barakat, R, Pelaez, M, Cordero, Y, et al. Exercise during pregnancy protects against hypertension and macrosomia: randomized clinical trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2016; 214: 649.e1–649.e6498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2015.11.039.
Poston, L, Briley, AL, Seed, PT, et al. Vitamin C and vitamin E in pregnant women at risk for pre-eclampsia (VIP trial): randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 367: 1145–54.
Conde-Agudelo, A, Romero, R, Kusanovic, JP, Hassan, SS. Supplementation with vitamins C and E during pregnancy for the prevention of preeclampsia and other adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011; 204: 503.e1–12.
Groom, KM, McGowan, LM, MacKay, LK, et al. Enoxaparin for the prevention of preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction in women with a history: a randomized trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2017; 216: 296.e1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2017.01.014.
Magee, LA, von Dadelszen, P, Rey, E, et al. Less-tight versus tight control of hypertension in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 2015; 372: 407–17.
Abalos, E, Duley, L, Steyn, DW. Antihypertensive drug therapy for mild to moderate hypertension during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; (2): CD002252.
Butalia, S, Audibert, F, Côté, AM, et al. Hypertension Canada’s 2018 guidelines for the management of hypertension in pregnancy. Can J Cardiol 2018; 34: 526–31. doi: 10.1016/j.cjca.2018.02.021.
Duley, L, Meher, S, Jones, L. Drugs for treatment of very high blood pressure during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013 (7): CD001449.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Emergent therapy for acute-onset, severe hypertension during pregnancy and the postpartum period. ACOG committee opinion 692, April 2017.
Sibai, BM, Abdella, TN, Anderson, GD. Pregnancy outcome in 211 patients with mild chronic hypertension. Obstet Gynecol 1983; 61: 571–6.
Hutcheon, JA, Lisonkova, S, Magee, LA, et al. Optimal timing of delivery in pregnancies with pre-existing hypertension. BJOG 2011; 118: 49–54.
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. The Investigation and Management of the Small-for-Gestational-Age Fetus, 2nd edn. Green-top Guideline No. 31. London: RCOG, 2014.
Ananth, CV, Basso, O. Impact of pregnancy-induced hypertension on stillbirth and neonatal mortality in first and higher order births: a population-based study. Epidemiology 2010; 21: 118–23.
Wallis, AB, Saftlas, AF, Hsia, J, et al. Secular trends in the rates of preeclampsia, eclampsia and gestational hypertension, United States, 1987–2004. Am J Hypertens 2008; 21: 521–6.
Saudan, P, Brown, MA, Buddle, ML, et al. Does gestational hypertension become pre-eclampsia? BJOG 1998; 105: 1177–84.
Buchbinder, A, Sibai, BM, Caritis, S, et al. Adverse perinatal outcomes are significantly higher in severe gestational hypertension than in mild preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: 66–71.
Koopmans, CM, Bijlenga, D, Groen, H, et al. Induction of labour versus expectant monitoring for gestational hypertension or mild pre-eclampsia after 36 weeks’ gestation (HYPITAT): a multicentre, open-label randomized control trial. Lancet 2009; 374: 979–88.
Vijgen, SMC, Koopmans, CM, Opmeer, BC, et al. An economic analysis of induction of labour and expectant monitoring in women with gestational hypertension or pre-eclampsia at term. BJOG 2010; 117: 1577–85.
Broekhuijsen, K, van Baaren, GJ, van Pampus, MG, et al. Immediate delivery versus expectant monitoring for hypertensive disorders of pregnancy between 34 and 37 weeks of gestation (HYPITAT-II): an open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2015; 385: 2492–501. Erratum in: Lancet 2016; 387: 848.
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Antenatal Corticosteroids to Reduce Neonatal Morbidity and Mortality. Green-top guideline No.7. London: RCOG, 2010.
Roberts, D, Dalziel, SR. Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; (3): CD004454.
Leduc, D, Biringer, A, Lee, L, Dy, J; Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada. Induction of labour. SOGC Clinical Practice Guideline No. 296. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2013; 35: 840–60.
Xenakis, EM, Piper, JM, Conway, DL, et al. Induction of labor in the nineties: conquering the unfavorable cervix. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 90: 235–9.
Thornton, CE, Dahlem, HG, Ogle, R, et al. Birth outcomes and induction success in hypertensive women: a population based data linkage study (2000–2011). Pregnancy Hypertens 2015; 5: 73.
Tranquilli, AL, Brown, MA, Zeeman, GG, et al. The definition of severe and early-onset preeclampsia. Statements from the International Society for the Study of Hypertension in Pregnancy (ISSHP). Pregnancy Hypertens 2013; 3: 44–7.
Brennan, LJ, Morton, JS, Davidge, ST. Vascular dysfunction in preeclampsia. Microcirculation 2014; 21: 4–14.
Roberts, JM, Bell, MJ. If we know so much about preeclampsia, why haven’t we cured the disease? J Reprod Immunol 2013; 99: 1–9.
Hytten, FE, Thomson, AM, Taggart, N, et al. Total body water in normal pregnancy. BJOG 1966; 73: 553–61.
Bosio, PM, McKenna, PJ, Conroy, R, et al. Maternal central hemodynamics in hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1999; 94: 978–84.
Easterling, TR, Benedetti, TJ, Schmucker, RN, et al. Maternal hemodynamics in normal and preeclamptic pregnancies:a longitudinal study. Obstet Gynaecol 1990; 76: 1061–9.
Mabie, WC, Ratts, TE, Sibai, BM. The central hemodynamics of severe preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 161: 1443–8.
Creasy, RK, Resnik, R, Iams, JD (eds). Creasy and Resnik’s Maternal–Fetal Medicine, 6th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, 2009, pp. 661–2.
Strevens, H, Wide-Swensson, D, Hansen, A, et al. Glomerular endotheliosis in normal pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. BJOG 2003; 110: 831–6.
Spargo, BH, McCartney, C, Winemiller, R. Glomerular endotheliosis in toxemia of pregnancy. Arch Pathol 1959; 13: 593–9.
Burke, N, Flood, K, Murray, A, et al. Platelet reactivity changes significantly throughout all trimesters if pregnancy compared with the nonpregnant state: a prospective study. BJOG 2013; 120: 1599–604.
Giles, C, Inglis, TC. Thrombocytopenia and macrothrombocytosis in gestational hypertension. BJOG 1981; 88: 1115–19.
Yang, Z, Ye, R, Miao, L. Study of the liver changes by B-ultrasound and histopathology in severe pregnancy induced hypertension. Zhonghua Fu Chan Ke Za Zhi 1998; 33: 453–5.
Dani, R, Mendes, GS, Medeiros, JdeL, Péret, FJ, Nunes, A. Study of the liver changes occurring in pre-eclampsia and their possible pathogenetic connection with acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 292–4.
Nelson-Piercy, C. Handbook of Obstetric Medicine, 2nd edn. London: Taylor & Francis, 2002.
Cipola, MJ. Control of cerebral blood flow. In The Cerebral Circulation. San Rafael, CA: Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences, 2009, chapter 5.
Roos, NM, Wiegman, MJ, Jansonius, NM, et al. Visual disturbances in (pre)eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2012; 67: 242–50.
Neurdorfer, M, Spierer, O, Goder, M, et al. The prevalence of retinal and optical coherence tomography findings in pre-eclamptic women. Retina 2014; 34: 1376–83.
Digre, KB, Varner, MW, Schiffman, JS. Neuroophthalmologic effects of intravenous magnesium sulfate. Am J Obstet Gynaecol 1990; 163: 1848–52.
Robertson, WB. Uteroplacental vasculature. J Clin Path 1976; 10: 9–17.
Staff, AC, Dechend, R, Redman, CW. Review: Preeclampsia, acute atherosis of the spiral arteries and future cardiovascular disease: two new hypotheses. Placenta 2013; 34: S73–8.
Bakker, R, Steegers, EA, Hofman, A, et al. Blood pressure in different gestational trimesters, fetal growth, and the risk of adverse birth outcomes: the generation R study. Am J Epidemiol 2011; 174: 797–806.
MBRRACE-UK. Perinatal Mortality Surveillance Report: UK perinatal deaths for births from January to December 2014. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, 2016. https://www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/downloads/files/mbrrace-uk/reports/MBRRACE-UK-PMS-Report-2014.pdf (accessed March 2017).
Churchill, D, Duley, L, Thornton, JG, et al. Interventionist versus expectant care for severe pre-eclampsia between 24 and 34 weeks’ gestation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; (7): CD003106.
Nilsson, E, Salonen Ros, H, Cnattingius, S, et al. The importance of genetic and environmental effects for pre-eclampsia and gestational hypertension: a family study. BJOG 2004; 111: 200–6.
Jebbink, J, Wolters, A, Fernando, F, et al. Molecular genetics of preeclampsia and HELLP syndrome: a review. Biochim Biophys Acta 2012; 1822: 1960–9.
Zusterzeel, PLM, te Morsche, R, Rajmakers, MTM, et al. Paternal contribution to the risk for pre-eclampsia. J Med Genet 2002; 39: 44–5.
Lie, RT, Rasmussen, S, Brunborg, H, et al. Fetal and maternal contributions to risk of pre-eclampsia: population based study. BMJ 1998; 316: 1343–7.
North, RA, McCowan, LM, Dekker, GA, et al. Clinical risk prediction for pre-eclampsia in nulliparous women: development of model in international prospective cohort. BMJ 2011; 342: d1875.
Wang, Z, Wang, P, Liu, H, et al. Maternal adiposity as an independent risk factor for pre-eclampsia: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Obes Rev 2013; 14: 508–21.
Duckitt, K, Harrington, D, et al. Risk factors for pre-eclampsia at antenatal booking: systematic review of controlled studies. BMJ 2005; 330: 565.
Jacobs, DJ, Vreeburg, SA, Dekker, GA, et al. Risk factors for hypertension during pregnancy in South Australia. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2003; 43: 421–8.
Kho, EM, McCowan, LM, North, RA, et al. Duration of sexual relationship and its effect on preeclampsia and small for gestational age perinatal outcome. J Reprod Immunol 2009; 82: 66–73.
Robertson, L, Wu, O, Langhorne, P et al.; TREATS study. Thrombophilia in pregnancy: a systematic review. Br J Haematol 2006; 132: 171–96.
Rodger, MA, Betancourt, MT, Clark, P, et al. The association of factor V leiden and prothrombin gene mutation and placenta-mediated pregnancy complications: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. PLoS Med 2010; 7 (6): e1000292
Alfirevic, Z, Roberts, D, Martlew, V. How strong is the association between thrombophilia and adverse pregnancy outcome? A systematic review. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2002; 101: 6–14.
Opdahl, S, Henningsen, AA, Tiitinen, A, et al. Risk of hypertensive disorders in pregnancies following assisted reproductive technology: a cohort study from the CoNARTaS group. Hum Reprod 2015; 30: 1724–31.
Poon, LC, Kametas, NA, Chelemen, T, et al. Maternal risk factors for hypertensive disorders in pregnancy: a multivariate approach. J Hum Hypertens 2010; 24: 104–10.
Myatt, L, Clifton, RG, Roberts, JM, et al. Can changes in angiogenic biomarkers between the first and second trimesters of pregnancy predict development of pre-eclampsia in a low-risk nulliparous patient population? BJOG 2013; 120: 1183–91.
Chappell, LC, Duckworth, S, Seed, PT, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of placental growth factor in women with pre-eclampsia. Circulation 2013; 128: 2121–31.
Powe, CE, Levine, RJ, Karumanchi, SA. Preeclampsia, a disease of the maternal endothelium: the role of anti-angiogenic factors and implications for later cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2011; 123: 2856–69.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. PlGF-based testing to help diagnose suspected pre-eclampsia (Triage PlGF test, Elecsys immunoassay sFlt-1/PlGF ratio, DELFIA Xpress PlGF 1-2-3 test, and BRAHMS sFlt-1 Kryptor/BRAHMS PlGF plus Kryptor PE ratio. NICE Diagnostics Guidance DG23. London: NICE, 2016. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/dg23 (accessed September 2019).
Brown, MA, Magee, LA, Kenny, LC, et al. The hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: ISSHP classification, diagnosis and management recommendations for international practice. Pregnancy Hypertens 2018; 13: 291–310. doi: 10.1016/j.preghy.2018.05.004.
Duhig, KE, Shennan, AH. Recent advances in the diagnosis and management of pre-eclampsia. F1000Prime Reports 2015, 7: 24.
Metcalfe, A, Langlois, S, MacFarlane, J, et al. Prediction of obstetrical risk using maternal serum markers and clinical risk factors. Prenat Diagn 2014; 34: 172–9.
Kenny, LC, Black, MA, Poston, L, et al. Early pregnancy prediction of preeclampsia in nulliparous women, combining clinical risk and biomarkers: the Screening for Pregnancy Endpoints (SCOPE) international cohort study. Hypertension 2014; 64:644–52.
Velauthar, L, Plana, MN, Kalidindi, M, et al. First-trimester uterine artery Doppler and adverse pregnancy outcome: a meta-analysis involving 55974 women. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2014; 43: 500–7.
Tan, MY, Wright, D, Syngelaki, A, et al. Comparison of diagnostic accuracy of early screening for pre-eclampsia by NICE guidelines and a method combining maternal factors and biomarkers: results of SPREE. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2018;51: 743–50. doi: 10.1002/uog.19039.
Douglas, KA, Redman, CWG. Eclampsia in the United Kingdom. BMJ 1994; 309: 1395–400.
Knight, M; UKOSS. Eclampsia in the United Kingdom 2005. BJOG 2007; 114: 1072–8.
Eclampsia Trial Collaborative Group. Which anticonvulsant for women with eclampsia? Evidence from the Collaborative Eclampsia Trial. Lancet 1995; 345: 1455–63.
Altman, D, Carroli, G, Duley, L, et al. Do women with pre-eclampsia and their babies benefit from magnesium sulphate? The Magpie Trial: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002; 359: 1877–90.
Duley, L, Gulmezoglu, AM, Henderson-Smart, DJ, et al. Magnesium sulphate and other anticonvulsants for women with pre-eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; (11): CD000025.
Van Pampus, MG, Wolf, H, Westenberg, SM, et al. Maternal and perinatal outcome after expectant management of the HELLP syndrome compared with pre-eclampsia without HELLP syndrome. Eur J Gynecol Reprod Biol 1998; 76: 31–6.
Woudstra, DM, Chandra, S, Justus Hofmeyr, G, et al. Corticosteroids for HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets) syndrome in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; (9): CD008148.
Ganzevoort, W, Rep, A, Bonsel, GJ, et al. A randomised controlled trial comparing two temporizing management strategies, one with and one without plasma volume expansion, for severe and early-onset pre-eclampsia. BJOG 2005; 112: 1358–68.
Jacobsen, AF, Skjeldestad, FE, Sandset, PM. Ante- and postnatal risk factors of venous thrombosis: a hospital-based case–control study. J Thromb Haemost 2008; 6: 905–12.
Lindqvist, P, Dahlback, B, Marsal, K. Thrombotic risk during pregnancy: a population study. Obstet Gynecol 1999; 94: 595–9.
Kramer, MS, Berg, C, Abenhaim, H, et al. Incidence, risk factors, and temporal trends in severe postpartum haemorrhage. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2013; 209: 449.e1–7.
Dennis, AT. Management of pre-eclampsia: issues for anaesthetists. Anaesthesia 2012; 67: 1009–20.
van Veen, JJ, Nokes, TJ, Makris, M, et al. The risk of spinal haematoma following neuraxial anaesthesia or lumbar puncture in thrombocytopenic individuals. Br J Haematol 2010; 148: 15–25.
Aya, AG, Vialles, N, Tanoubi, I, et al. Spinal anesthesia-induced hypotension: a risk comparison between patients with severe preeclampsia and healthy women undergoing preterm cesarean delivery. Anesth Analg 2005; 101: 869–75.
Davis, EF, Lazdam, M, Lewandowski, AJ, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in children and young adults born to preeclamptic pregnancies: a systematic review. Pediatrics 2012; 129: e1552–61.
References
Kuklina, E, Callaghan, W. Chronic heart disease and severe obstetric morbidity among hospitalisations for pregnancy in the USA: 1995–2006. BJOG 2011; 118: 345–52.
Knight, M, Bunch, K, Tuffnell, D, et al., on behalf of MBRRACE-UK. Saving Lives, Improving Mothers' Care: Lessons Learned to Inform Maternity Care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2015–17. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford, 2019. www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/mbrrace-uk/reports (accessed August 2020).
Creanga, AA, Syverson, C, Seed, K, Callaghan, WM. Pregnancy-related mortality in the United States, 2011–2013. Obstet Gynecol 2017; 1030: 366–73. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000002114.
Leary, PJ, Leary, SE, Stout, KK, Schwartz, SM, Easterling, TR. Maternal, perinatal, and postneonatal outcomes in women with chronic heart disease in Washington State. Obstet Gynecol 2012; 120: 1283–90.
Sermer, M, Colman, J, Siu, S. Pregnancy complicated by heart disease: a review of Canadian experience. J Obstet Gynaecol 2003; 23: 540–4.
Siu, SC, Sermer, M, Colman, JM, et al. Prospective multicenter study of pregnancy outcome in women with heart disease. Circulation 2001; 104: 515–21.
Stangl, V, Schad, J, Gossing, G, et al. Maternal heart disease and pregnancy outcome: a single-centre experience. Eur J Heart Fail 2008; 10: 855–60.
Siu, SC, Sermer, M, Harrison, DA, et al. Risk and predictors for pregnancy-related complications in women with heart disease. Circulation 1997; 96: 2789–94.
Ruys, TP, Roos-Hesselink, JW, Hall, R, et al. Heart failure in pregnant women with cardiac disease: data from the ROPAC. Heart 2014; 100: 231–8.
Regitz-Zagrosek, V, Lundqvist, CB, Borghi, C, et al. ESC Guidelines on the management of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy: the Task Force on the Management of Cardiovascular Diseases during Pregnancy of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2011; 32: 3147–97. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehr218.
Silversides, CK, Grewal, J, Mason, J, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with heart disease: the CARPREG II study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2018; 71: 2419–30. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2018.02.076.
Lindheimer, M, Katz, A. Sodium and diuretics in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1973; 288: 891–4.
Seitchik, J. Total body water and total body density of pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol 1967; 29: 155–6.
Theunissen, I, Parer, J. Fluid and electrolytes in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1994; 37: 3–15.
Scott, DE. Anemia in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Annu 1972; 1: 219–44.
Pritchard, JA, Baldwin, RM, Dickey, JC, Wiggins, KM. Blood volume changes in pregnancy and the puerperium: 2. Red blood cell loss and changes in apparent blood volume during and following vaginal delivery, cesarean section, and cesarean section plus total hysterectomy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1962; 84: 1271–82.
Bader, RA, Bader, ME, Rose, DF, Braunwald, E. Hemodynamics at rest and during exercise in normal pregnancy as studied by cardiac catheterization. J Clin Invest 1955; 34: 1524–36.
Desai, D, Moodley, J, Naidoo, DP. Echocardiographic assessment of cardiovascular hemodynamics in normal pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2004; 104: 20–9.
Katz, R, Karliner, JS, Resnik, R. Effects of a natural volume overload state (pregnancy) on left ventricular performance in normal human subjects. Circulation 1978; 58: 434–41.
Ueland, K, Novy, MJ, Peterson, EN, Metcalfe, J. Maternal cardiovascular dynamics: IV. The influence of gestational age on the maternal cardiovascular response to posture and exercise. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1969; 104: 856–64.
Sadaniantz, A, Kocheril, AG, Emaus, SP, Garber, CE, Parisi, AF. Cardiovascular changes in pregnancy evaluated by two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 1992; 5: 253–8.
Wilson, M, Morganti, AA, Zervoudakis, I, et al. Blood pressure, the renin-aldosterone system, and sex steroids throughout normal pregnancy. Am J Med 1980; 68: 97–104.
MacGillivray, I, Rose, GA, Rowe, B. Blood pressure survey in pregnancy. Clin Sci 1969; 37: 395–407.
Kerr, M. Cardiovascular dynamics in pregnancy and labour. Br Med Bull 1968; 24: 19–24.
Kim, T, Ryu, D. The effect of fundal pressure at caesarean section on maternal haemodynamics. Anesthesia 2006; 61: 434–8.
Oian, P, Maltau, JM, Noddeland, H, Fadnes, HO. Oedema-preventing mechanisms in subcutaneous tissue of normal pregnant women. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985; 92: 1113–19.
Oian, P, Maltau, J. Calculated capillary hydrostatic pressure in normal pregnancy and preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 157: 102–6.
Cotton, DB, Gonik, B, Spillman, T, Dorman, KF. Intrapartum to postpartum changes in colloid osmotic pressure. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984; 149: 174–7.
Gonik, B, Cotton, D, Spillman, T, Abouleish, E, Zavisca, F. Peripartum colloid osmotic changes: effects of controlled fluid management. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985; 151: 812–15.
Wilson, W, Taubert, KA, Gewitz, M, et al. Prevention of infective endocarditis: guidelines from the American Heart Association: a guideline from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Circulation 2007; 116: 1736–54.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Prophylaxis Against Infective Endocarditis: Antimicrobial Prophylaxis Against Infective Endocarditis in Adults and Children Undergoing Interventional Procedures. NICE Clinical guideline CG64. London: NICE, 2008 [updated 2016]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG64 (accessed August 2020).
Gould, FK, Elliott, TS, Foweraker, J, et al. Guidelines for the prevention of endocarditis: report of the Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 57: 1035–42.
Smaill, FM, Gyte, GM. Antibiotic prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis for preventing infection after cesarean section. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010 (1): CD007482.
McFaul, PB, Dornan, JC, Lamki, H, Boyle, D. Pregnancy complicated by maternal heart disease: a review of 519 women. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1988; 95: 861–7.
Sugrue, D, Blake, S, MacDonald, D. Pregnancy complicated by maternal heart disease at the National Maternity Hospital, Dublin, Ireland, 1969–1978. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1981; 139: 1–6.
Durack, D. Prevention of infective endocarditis. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 38–44.
Nishimura, RA, Otto, CM, Bonow, RO, et al. 2017 AHA/ACC focused update of the 2014 AHA/ACC Guideline for the management of patient with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation 2017; 135: e1159−95. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000503.
Pocock, S, Chen, K. Inappropriate use of antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent infective endocarditis in obstetric patients. Obstet Gynecol 2006; 108: 280–5.
Gelson, E, Curry, R, Gatzoulis, MA, et al. Effect of maternal heart disease on fetal growth. Obstet Gynecol 2011; 117: 886–91.
Task Force on the Management of Cardiovascular Diseases During Pregnancy of the European Society of Cardiology. Expert consensus document on management of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy. Eur Heart J 2003; 24: 761–81.
Burn, J, Brennan, P, Little, J, et al. Recurrence risks in offspring of adults with major heart defects: results from first cohort of British collaborative study. Lancet 1998; 351: 311–16.
Cheitlin, D, Alpert, JS, Armstrong, WF, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for the clinical application of echocardiography: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Clinical Application of Echocardiography). Developed in collaboration with the American Society of Echocardiography Circulation 1997; 95: 1686–744.
Criteria Committee of the New York Heart Association. Nomenclature and Criteria for Diagnosis of Disease of the Heart and Great Vessels. 6th edn. Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1964.
Sidlik, R, Sheiner, E, Levy, A, Wiznitzer, A. Effect of maternal congenital heart defects on labor and delivery outcome: a population-based study. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2007; 20: 211–16.
Ostheimer, GW, Alper, MH. Intrapartum anesthetic management of the pregnant patient with heart disease. Clin Obstet Gynecol 197; 18: 81–97.
Briggs, G, Freeman, R, Yaffe, S. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation, 8th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2011.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Content and Format of Labeling for Human Prescription Drug and Biological Products; Requirements for Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling. Final Rule. Fed Regist 2014; 79 (233): 72063–103.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 212: pregnancy and heart disease. Obstet Gynecol 2019; 133: e320−56. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003243.
Hameed, AB, Morton, CH, Moore, A. Improving health care response to cardiovascular disease in pregnancy and postpartum. California Department of Public Health, 2017. www.cmqcc.org/resource/improving-health-care-response-cardiovascular-disease-pregnancy-and-postpartum (accessed August 2020).
Thorne, S. Pregnancy and native heart valve disease. Heart 2016; 102: 1410−17. https://doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2014-306729.
Robertson, JE, Silversides, CK, Mah, ML, et al. A contemporary approach to the obstetric management of women with heart disease. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2012; 34: 812–19.
Bernard, GR, Sopko, G, Cerra, F, et al. Pulmonary artery catheterization and clinical outcomes: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and Food and Drug Administration Workshop Report. JAMA 2000; 283: 2568–72.
Parson, P. Progress in research on pulmonary-artery catheters. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 66–8.
Sandham, JD, Hull, RD, Brant, RF, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of the use of pulmonary-artery catheters in high-risk surgical patients. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 5–14.
Asfour, V, Murphy, MO, Attia, R. Is vaginal delivery or caesarean section the safer mode of delivery in patients with adult congenital heart disease? Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2013; 17: 144–50.
World Health Organization. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 5th edn. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2015.
Thorne, S, Nelson-Piercy, C, MacGregor, A, et al. Pregnancy and contraception in heart disease and pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 2006; 32: 75–81.
Goldberg, LM, Uhland, H. Heart murmurs in pregnancy: a phonocardiographic study and their development, progression and regression. Dis Chest 1967; 52: 381–6.
Harvey, W. Alterations of the cardiac physical examination in normal pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1975; 18: 51–63.
Northcote, R, Knight, P, Ballantyne, D. Systolic murmurs in pregnancy: value of echocardiographic assessment. Clin Cardiol 1985; 8: 327–8.
Etchells, E, Bell, C, Robb, K. Does this patient have an abnormal systolic murmur? JAMA 1997; 277: 564–71.
Xu, M, McHaffie, DJ. Nonspecific systolic murmurs: an audit of the clinical value of echocardiography. N Z Med J 1993; 106: 54–6.
Tan, J, de Swiet, M. Prevalence of heart disease diagnosed de novo in pregnancy in a West London population. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998; 105: 1185–8.
Bonow, RO, Carabello, BA, Kanu, C, et al. ACC/AHA 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (writing committee to revise the 1998 Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Valvular Heart Disease): developed in collaboration with the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists: endorsed by the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Circulation 2006; 114: e84–231.
Weisse, A. Mitral valve prolapse: now you see it; now you don’t: recalling the discovery, rise and decline of a diagnosis. Am J Cardiol 2007; 99: 129–33.
Freed, LA, Levy, D, Levine, RA, et al. Prevalence and clinical outcome of mitral-valve prolapse. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 1–7.
Hepner, AD, Ahmadi-Kashani, M, Movahed, MR. The prevalence of mitral valve prolapse in patients undergoing echocardiography for clinical reason. Int J Cardiol 2007; 123: 55–7.
Lax, D, Eicher, M, Goldberg, S. Effects of hydration on mitral valve prolapse. Am Heart J 1993; 126: 415–18.
Rayburn, WF, LeMire, MS, Bird, JL, Buda, AJ. Mitral valve prolapse. J Reprod Med 1987; 32: 185–7.
Retchin, SM, Fletcher, RH, Earp, J, Lamson, N, Waugh, RA. Mitral valve prolapse: disease or illness? Arch Intern Med 1986; 146: 1081–4.
Avierinos, JF, Detaint, D, Messika-Zeitoun, D, Mohty, D, Enriquez-Sarano, M. Risk, determinants, and outcome implications of progression of mitral regurgitation after diagnosis of mitral valve prolapse in a single community. Am J Cardiol 2008; 101: 662–7.
Zuppiroli, A, Rinaldi, M, Kramer-Fox, R, et al. Natural history of mitral valve prolapse. Am J Cardiol 1995; 75: 1028–32.
Drenthen, W, Pieper, PG, Roos-Hesselink, JW, et al. Outcome of pregnancy in women with congenital heart disease: a literature review. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49: 2303–11.
Karamlou, T, Diggs, BS, McCrindle, BW, Welke, KF, et al. A growing problem: maternal death and peripartum complicatons are higher in women with grown-up congenital heart disease. Ann Thorac Surg 2011; 92: 2193–9.
Webb, G, Gatzoulis, M. Atrial septal defects in the adult: recent progress and overview. Circulation 2006; 114: 1645–53.
Alahuhta, S, Jouppila, P. Pregnancy after cardiac surgery in patients with secondary pulmonary hypertension due to a ventricular septal defect. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1994; 73: 836–8.
Curry, RA, Fletcher, C, Gelson, E, et al. Pulmonary hypertension and pregnancy: a review of 12 pregnancies in nine women. BJOG 2012; 119: 752–61.
Duarte, AG, Thomas, S,Safdar, Z, et al. Management of pulmonary arterial hypertension during pregnancy: a retrospective, multicenter experience. Chest 2013; 143: 1330–6.
Sliwa, K, van Hagen, IM, Budts, W, et al. Pulmonary hypertension and pregnancy outcomes: data from the Registry of Pregnancy and Cardiac Disease (ROPAC) of the Euproean Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail 2016; 18: 1119–28. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.594.
Chakravarty, E, Khanna, D, Chung, L. Pregnancy outcomes in systemic sclerosis, primary pulmonary hypertension, and sickle cell disease. Obstet Gynecol 2008; 111: 927–34.
Penning, S, Robinson, KD, Major, CA, Garite, TJ. A comparison of echocardiography and pulmonary artery catheterization for evaluation of pulmonary artery pressures in pregnant patients with suspected pulmonary hypertension. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 184: 1568–70.
Wylie, BJ, Epps, KC, Gaddipati, S, Waksmonski, CA. Correlation of transthoracic echocardiography and right heart catheterization in pregnancy. J Perinat Med 2007; 35: 497–502.
Bonnin, M, Mercier, FJ, Sitbon, O, et al. Severe pulmonary hypertension during pregnancy mode of delivery and anesthetic management of 15 consecutive cases. Anesthesiology 2005; 102: 1133–7.
Maxwell, BG, El-Sayed, YY, Riley, ET, Carvalho, B. Peripartum outcomes and anaesthetic management of parturients with moderate to complex heart disease or pulmonary hypertension. Anesthesia 2013; 68: 52–9.
Hart, C. Nitric oxide in adult lung disease. Chest 1999; 115: 1407–17.
Yentis, SM, Steer, PJ, Plaat, F. Eisenmenger’s syndrome in pregnancy: maternal and fetal mortality in the 1990s. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998; 105: 921–2.
Vongpatanasin, W, Brickner, ME, Hillis, LD, Lange, RA. The Eisenmenger syndrome in adults. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128: 745–55.
Smedstad, K, Cramb, R, Morison, D. Pulmonary hypertension and pregnancy: A series of eight cases. Can J Anaesth 1994; 41: 502–12.
Hameed, A, Goodwin, T, Elkayam, U. Effect of pulmonary stenosis on pregnancy outcomes: a case–control study. Am Heart J 2007; 154: 852–4.
Drenthen, W, Pieper, PG, Roos-Hesselink, JW, et al. Non-cardiac complications during pregnancy in women with isolated congenital pulmonary valvar stenosis. Heart 2006; 92: 1838–43.
Hameed, A, Karaalp, IS, Tummala, PP, et al. The effect of valvular heart disease on maternal and fetal outcome of pregnancy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 37: 893–9.
Vriend, JW, Drenthen, W, Pieper, PG, et al. Outcome of pregnancy in patients after repair of aortic coarctation. Eur Heart J 2005; 26: 2173–8.
Horlick, EM, McLaughlin, PR, Bensen, LN. The adult with repaired coarctation of the aorta. Curr Cardiol Rep 2007; 9: 323–30.
Krieger, EV, Landzberg, MJ, Economy, KE, Webb, GD, Opotowsky, AR. Comparison of risk of hypertensive complications of pregnancy among women with versus without coarctation of the aorta. Am J Cardiol 2011; 107: 1529–34.
Beauschesne, LM, Connolly, HM, Ammash, NM, Warnes, CA. Coarctation of the aorta: outcome of pregnancy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 38: 1728–33.
Gelson, E, Gatzoulis, M, Steer, PJ, Lupton, M, Johnson, M. Tetralogy of Fallot: maternal and neonatal outcomes. BJOG 2008; 115: 398–402.
Meijer, JM, Pieper, PG, Drenthen, W, et al. Pregnancy, fertility, and recurrence risk in corrected tetralogy of Fallot. Heart 2005; 91: 801–5.
Patton, DE, Lee, W, Cotton, DB, et al. Cyanotic maternal heart disease in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1990; 45: 594–600.
Canobbio, MM, Morris, CD, Graham, TP, Landzberg, MJ. Pregnancy outcomes after atrial repair for transposition of the great arteries. Am J Cardiol 2006; 98: 668–72.
Jain, VD, Moghbeli, N, Webb, G, et al. Pregnancy in women with congenital heart disease: the impact of a systemic right ventricle. Congenit Heart Dis 2011; 6: 147–56.
Bowater, SE, Selman, TJ, Hudsmith, LE, et al. Long-term outcome following pregnancy in women with a systemic right ventricle: is the deterioration due to pregnancy or a consequence of time? Congenit Heart Dis 2013; 8: 302–7.
Tobler, D, Fernandes, SM, Wald, RM, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with transposition of the great arteries and arterial switch operation. Am J Cardiol 2010; 106: 417–20.
Horiuchi, C, Kamiya, CA, Ohuchi, H, et al. Pregnancy outcomes and mid-term prognosis in women after arterial switch operation for dextro-transposition of the great arteries: tertiary hospital experiences and review of the literature. J Cardiol 2019; 73: 247–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jjcc.2018.11.007.
Stoll, VM, Drury, NE, Thorne, S, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with transposition of the great arteries after an arterial switch operation. JAMA Cardiol 2018; 3: 1119–22. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2018.2747.
Katsuragi, S, Kamiya, C, Yamanaka, K, et al. Risk factors for maternal and fetal outcome in pregnancy complicated by Ebstein anomaly. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2013; 209: 452.e1–6.
Paranon, S, Acar, P. Ebstein’s anomaly of the tricuspid valve: from fetus to adult. Heart 2008; 94: 237–43.
Friedman, W, Heiferman, M. Clinical problems of postoperative pulmonary vascular disease. Am J Cardiol 1982; 50: 631–6.
Wilson, N. Rheumatic heart disease in indigenous populations: New Zealand experience. Heart Lung Circ 2010; 19: 282–8.
Elassy, S, Elmidany, A, Elbawab, H. Urgent cardiac surgery during pregnancy: a continous challenge. Ann Thorac Surg, 2014; 97: 1624–9.
Sartain, JB, Anderson, NL, Barry, JJ, Boyd, PT, Howat, PW. Rheumatic heart disease in pregnancy: cardiac and obstetric outcomes. Intern Med J 2012; 42: 978–84.
Gray, ED, Regelmann, WE, Abdin, Z, et al. Compartmentalization of cells surface antigens in peripheral blood and tonsils in rheumatic heart disease. J Infect Dis 1987; 155: 247–252.
van Hagen, IM, Thorne, SA, Taha, N, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with rheumatic mitral valve disease: results from the registry of pregnancy and cardiac disease. Circulation 2018; 137: 806–16. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.032561.
Desai, DK, Adanlawo, M, Naidoo, DP, Moodley, J, Kleinschmidt, I. Mitral stenosis in pregnancy: a four-year experience at King Edward VIII Hospital, Durban, South Africa. BJOG 2000; 107: 953–8.
Silversides, CK, Colman, JM, Sermer, M, Siu, SC. Cardiac risk in pregnant women with rheumatic mitral stenosis. Am J Cardiol 2003; 91: 1382–5.
Lesniak-Sobelga, A, Tracz, W, Kostkiewicz, M, Podolec, P, Pasowicz, M. Clinical and echocardiographic assessment of pregnant women with valvular heart diseases: maternal and fetal outcome. Int J Cardiol 2004; 94: 15–23.
Nishimura, RA, Otto, CM, Bonow, RO, et al. 2014 AHA/ACC guideline for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: executive summary. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014; 63: 2438–88.
de Souza, JA, Martinez, EE, Ambrose, JA, et al. Percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty in comparison with open mitral valve commissurotomy for mitral stenosis during pregnancy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 37: 900–3.
Fawzy, ME, Kinsara, AJ, Stefadouros, M, et al. Long-term outcome of mitral balloon valvotomy in pregnant women. J Heart Valve Dis 2001; 10: 153–7.
Esteves, C, Munoz, JS, Braga, S, et al. Immediate and long-term follow-up of percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty in pregnant patients with rheumatic mitral stenosis. Am J Cardiol 2006; 98: 812–16.
Nercolini, D, da Rocha Loures Bueno, R, Eduardo Guérios, E, et al. Percutaneous mitral balloon valvuloplasty in pregnant women with mitral stenosis. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2002; 57: 318–22.
Sivadasanpillai, H, Srinivasan, A, Sivasubramoniam, S, et al. Long-term outcome of patients undergoing balloon mitral valvotomy in pregnancy. Am J Cardiol 2005; 95: 1504–6.
Iscan, ZH, Mavioglu, L, Vural, KM, Kucuker, S, Birincioglu, L. Cardiac surgery during pregnancy. J Heart Valve Dis 2006; 15: 686–90.
Kinsara, AJ, Ismail, O, Fawzi, ME. Effect of balloon mitral valvoplasty during pregnancy and childhood development. Cardiology 2002; 97: 155–8.
Clark, SL, Phelan, JP, Greenspoon, J, Aldahl, D, Horenstein, J. Labor and delivery in the presence of mitral stenosis: central hemodynamic observations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985; 152: 984–8.
Waller, B, Howard, J, Fess, S. Pathology of mitral valve stenosis and pure mitral regurgitation: Part I. Clin Cardiol 1994; 17: 330–6.
John, AS, Gurley, F, Schaff, HV, et al. Cardiopulmonary bypass during pregnancy. Ann Thorac Surg 2011; 91: 1191–6.
Mahli, A, Izdes, S, Coskun, D. Cardiac operations during pregnancy: review of factors influencing fetal outcome. Ann Thorac Surg 2000; 69: 1622–6.
Rossouw, GJ, Knott-Craig, CJ, Barnard, PM, Macgregor, LA, Van Zyl, WP. Intracardiac operation in seven pregnant women. Ann Thorac Surg 1993; 55: 1172–4.
Weiss, BM, von Segesser, LK, Alon, E, Seifert, B, Turina, MI. Outcome of cardiovascular surgery and pregnancy: a systematic review of the period 1984–1996. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 179: 1643–53.
Carabello, BA. Aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 677–82.
Silversides, CK, Colman, JM, Sermer, M, Farine, D, Siu, SC. Early and intermediate-term outcomes of pregnancy with congenital aortic stenosis. Am J Cardiol 2003; 91: 1386–9.
Yap, SC, Drenthen, W, Pieper, PG, et al. Risk of complications during pregnancy in women with congenital aortic stenosis. Int J Cardiol 2008; 126: 240–6.
Spagnuolo, M, Kloth, H, Taranta, A, Doyle, E, Pasternack, B. Natural history of rheumatic aortic regurgitation. Criteria predictive of death, congestive heart failure, and angina in young patients. Circulation 1971; 44: 368–80.
Szekely, P, Turner, R, Snaith, L. Pregnancy and the changing pattern of rheumatic heart disease. Br Heart J 1973; 35: 1293–303.
Vongpatansin, W, Hillis, L, Lange, R. Prosthetic heart valves. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 407–16.
Yap, SC, Drenthen, W, Pieper, PG, et al. Outcome of pregnancy in women after pulmonary autograft valve replacement for congenital aortic valve disease. J Heart Valve Dis 2007; 16: 398–403.
De Santo, LS, Romano, G