Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T00:54:27.608Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

27 - The Phonology of Bimodal Bilinguals

from Part V - The Diversity of Bilingual Speakers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 November 2024

By
Diane Lillo-Martin ,
Shengyun Gu ,
L. Viola Kozak  and
Deborah Chen Pichler
Edited by
Mark Amengual
Mark Amengual
Affiliation:
University of California, Santa Cruz
Get access

Summary

In this chapter we consider aspects of phonology for bimodal bilinguals, whose languages span distinct modalities (spoken/signed/written). As for other bilinguals, the primary issues concern the representation of the phonology for each language individually, ways that the phonological representations interact with each other (in grammar and in processing), and the development of the two phonologies, for children developing as simultaneous bilinguals or for learners of a second language in a second modality. Research on these topics has been sparse, and some have hardly been explored at all. Findings so far indicate that despite the modality difference between their two languages, phonological interactions still occur for bimodal bilinguals, providing crucial data for linguistic theories about the locus and mechanisms for such interactions, and important practical implications for language learners.

Keywords

bimodal bilingualsign languagesign phonologymodalitylanguage interactioncode-blendingacquisitionmarkednesscomplexityiconicityprocessingcross-modal interaction
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Bilingual Phonetics and Phonology , pp. 607 - 630
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Battison, R. (1978). Lexical Borrowing in American Sign Language. Silver Spring, MD: Linstok Press.Google Scholar
Bishop, M. (2010). HAPPEN CAN’T HEAR: An analysis of code-blends in hearing, native signers of American Sign Language. Sign Language Studies, 11(2), 205–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bishop, M. & Hicks, S. (2005). Orange eyes: Bimodal bilingualism in hearing adults from deaf families. Sign Language Studies, 5(2), 188–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanco-Elorrieta, E., Emmorey, K., & Pylkkänen, L. (2018). Language switching decomposed through MEG and evidence from bimodal bilinguals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(39), 9708–9713.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bochner, J. H., Christie, K., Hauser, P. C., & Searls, J. M. (2011). When is a difference really different? Learners’ discrimination of linguistic contrasts in American Sign Language. Language Learning, 61(4), 1302–1327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonvillian, J. D. & Siedlecki, T. (2000). Young children’s acquisition of the formational aspects of American Sign Language: Parental report findings. Sign Language Studies, 1(1), 45–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyes-Braem, P. (1990). Acquisition of the handshape in American Sign Language: A preliminary analysis. In Volterra, V. & Erting, C. J., eds., From Gesture to Language in Hearing and Deaf Children. Berlin: Springer, pp. 107–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brentari, D., Fenlon, J., & Cormier, K. (2018). Sign language phonology. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brentari, D., Nadolske, M. A., & Wolford, G. (2012). Can experience with co-speech gesture influence the prosody of a sign language? Sign language prosodic cues in bimodal bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(2), 402–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, R., Martin, P., & White, T. (1992). Forced choice recognition of sign in novice learners of British Sign Language. Applied Linguistics, 13(2), 185–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caselli, N. K., Pyers, J., & Lieberman, A. M. (2021). Deaf children of hearing parents have age-level vocabulary growth when exposed to ASL by six-months. Journal of Pediatrics, 232, 229–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caselli, N. K., Sehyr, Z. S., Cohen-Goldberg, A. M., & Emmorey, K. (2017). ASL-LEX: A lexical database of American Sign Language. Behavior Research Methods, 49(2), 784–801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen Pichler, D. (2011). Sources of handshape error in first-time signers of ASL. In Mathur, G. & Napoli, D. Jo, eds., Deaf Around the World: The Impact of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 96–121.Google Scholar
Chen Pichler, D. (2012). Acquisition. In Pfau, R., Steinback, M., & Woll, B., eds., Sign Language: An International Handbook. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 647–686.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen Pichler, D., Quadros, R. M. de, & Lillo-Martin, D. (2009). Effects of bimodal production on multi-cyclicity in early ASL and Libras. BUCLD 34 Online Proceedings Supplement, 34, 1–14.Google Scholar
Chen Pichler, D., Lillo-Martin, D., & Palmer, J. L. (2018). A short introduction to heritage signers. Sign Language Studies, 18(3), 309–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, M. D., Hauser, P. C., Miller, P., et al. (2016). The importance of early sign language acquisition for deaf readers. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 32(2), 127–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cruz, C. R., Kozak, L. V., Pizzio, A. L., de Quadros, R. M., & Chen Pichler, D. (2014). Phonological memory and phonological acquisition in bimodal bilingual children. In Orman, W. & Valleau, M. J., eds., BUCLD 38: Proceedings of the 38th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press, pp. 103–115.Google Scholar
Davidson, K., Lillo-Martin, D., & Chen Pichler, D. (2014). Spoken English language development among native signing children with cochlear implants. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 19(2), 238–250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dias, P., Villameriel, S., Giezen, M. R., Costello, B., & Carreiras, M. (2017). Language switching across modalities: Evidence from bimodal bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(11), 1828–1834.Google ScholarPubMed
Emmorey, K., Borinstein, H. B., & Thompson, R. (2005). Bimodal bilingualism: Code-blending between spoken English and American Sign Language. In Cohen, J., McAlister, K. T., Rolstad, K., & MacSwan, J., eds., ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press, pp. 663–673.Google Scholar
Emmorey, K., Borinstein, H. B., Thompson, R., & Gollan, T. H. (2008). Bimodal bilingualism. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 11(1), 43–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emmorey, K., Li, C., Petrich, J., & Gollan, T. H. (2020). Turning languages on and off: Switching into and out of code-blends reveals the nature of bilingual language control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 46(3), 443–454.Google ScholarPubMed
Emmorey, K., Luk, G., Pyers, J. E., & Bialystok, E. (2008). The source of enhanced cognitive control in bilinguals: Evidence from bimodal bilinguals. Psychological Science, 19(12), 1201–1206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emmorey, K., Petrich, J. A. F., & Gollan, T. H. (2012). Bilingual processing of ASL–English code-blends: The consequences of accessing two lexical representations simultaneously. Journal of Memory and Language, 67(1), 199–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fung, C. H.-M. & Tang, G. (2016). Code-blending of functional heads in Hong Kong Sign Language and Cantonese: A case study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19(4), 754–781.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gathercole, S. E. & Baddeley, A. D. (1996). The Children’s Test of Nonword Repetition. London: Pearson.Google Scholar
Giezen, M. R., Blumenfeld, H. K., Shook, A., Marian, V., & Emmorey, K. (2015). Parallel language activation and inhibitory control in bimodal bilinguals. Cognition, 141, 9–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldman, R. & Fristoe, M. (2000). Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation 2. London: Pearson.Google Scholar
Goodwin, C. & Lillo-Martin, D. (2023). Deaf and hearing American Sign Language-English bilinguals: Typical bilingual language development. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 28(4), 350–362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gu, S., Chen Pichler, D., Kozak, L. V., & Lillo-Martin, D. (2022). Phonological development in American Sign Language-signing children: Insights from pseudosign repetition tasks. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.921047 .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, M. L., Hall, W. C., & Caselli, N. K. (2019). Deaf children need language, not (just) speech. First Language, 39(4), 367–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, W. C. (2017). What you don’t know can hurt you: The risk of language deprivation by impairing sign language development in deaf children. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 21(5), 961–965.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, W. C., Levin, L. L., & Anderson, M. L. (2017). Language deprivation syndrome: A possible neurodevelopmental disorder with sociocultural origins. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52(6), 761–776.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hassanzadeh, S. (2012). Outcomes of cochlear implantation in deaf children of deaf parents: Comparative study. Journal of Laryngology & Otology, 126(10), 989–994.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hochgesang, J. A., Crasborn, O., & Lillo-Martin, D. (2021). ASL Signbank. https://aslsignbank.haskins.yale.edu/.Google Scholar
Hosemann, J., Mani, N., Herrmann, A., Steinbach, M., & Altvater-Mackensen, N. (2020). Signs activate their written word translation in deaf adults: An ERP study on cross-modal co-activation in German Sign Language. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics, 5(1), 57.Google Scholar
Jissink, T. (2005). How do you drive your car? Phonological acquisition order for hearing adult learners of Sign Language of the Netherlands. [Master’s thesis, University of Amsterdam].Google Scholar
Kanto, L., Laakso, M.-L., & Huttunen, K. (2017). Use of code-mixing by young hearing children of deaf parents. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20(5), 947–964.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufmann, E., Mittelberg, I., Koch, I., & Philipp, A. M. (2018). Modality effects in language switching: Evidence for a bimodal advantage. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 21(2), 243–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufmann, E. & Philipp, A. M. (2017). Language-switch costs and dual-response costs in bimodal bilingual language production. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20(2), 418–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kozak, L. V. (2018). Phonological processing by bimodal bilingual children. [Doctoral dissertation, Gallaudet University].Google Scholar
Kozak, L. V., de Quadros, R. M., Cruz, C. R., et al. (2013). Phonological development in bimodal bilingual children’s pseudoword and pseudosign repetition. Poster presentation at the Linguistic Society of America Annual Meeting. https://slla.lab.uconn.edu/bibibi/.Google Scholar
Kroll, J. F., Bobb, S. C., & Hoshino, N. (2014). Two languages in mind: Bilingualism as a tool to investigate language, cognition, and the brain. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(3), 159–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubus, O., Villwock, A., Morford, J. P., & Rathmann, C. (2015). Word recognition in deaf readers: Cross-language activation of German Sign Language and German. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36(4), 831–854.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, B., Meade, G., Midgley, K. J., Holcomb, P. J., & Emmorey, K. (2019). ERP evidence for co-activation of English words during recognition of American Sign Language signs. Brain Sciences, 9(6), 148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leonard, L. B., Newhoff, M., & Mesalam, L. (1980). Individual differences in early child phonology. Applied Psycholinguistics, 1(1), 7–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levine, D., Strother-Garcia, K., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2016). Language development in the first year of life: What deaf children might be missing before cochlear implantation. Otology & Neurotology, 37(2), e56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberth, A. K. & Gamble, M. E. B. (1991). The role of iconicity in sign language learning by hearing adults. Journal of Communication Disorders, 24(2), 89–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lillo-Martin, D., Quadros, R. M. de, & Chen Pichler, D. (2016). The development of bimodal bilingualism: Implications for linguistic theory. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(6), 719–755.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lillo-Martin, D., Gale, E., & Chen Pichler, D. (2023). Family ASL: An early start to equitable education for deaf children. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 43(2), 156–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marian, V., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Boukrina, O. V. (2008). Sensitivity to phonological similarity within and across languages. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 37(3), 141–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayberry, R. (1976). An assessment of some oral and manual-language skills of hearing children of deaf parents. American Annals of the Deaf, 121(5), 507–512.Google ScholarPubMed
McQuarrie, L. & Abbott, M. (2013). Bilingual deaf students’ phonological awareness in ASL and reading skills in English. Sign Language Studies, 14(1), 80–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meade, G., Midgley, K. J., Sevcikova Sehyr, Z., Holcomb, P. J., & Emmorey, K. (2017). Implicit co-activation of American Sign Language in deaf readers: An ERP study. Brain and Language, 170, 50–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meier, R. P., Mauk, C. E., Cheek, A., & Moreland, C. J. (2008). The form of children’s early signs: Iconic or motoric determinants? Language Learning and Development, 4(1), 63–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, R. E., Young, T. A., Bachleda, B., & Karchmer, M. A. (2006). How many people use ASL in the United States? Why estimates need updating. Sign Language Studies, 6(3), 306–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morett, L. M. (2015). Lending a hand to signed language acquisition: Enactment and iconicity enhance sign recall in hearing adult American Sign Language learners. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 27(3), 251–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morford, J. P. & Kroll, J. F. (2021). Bilingualism in deaf and hearing signers. In Francis, W. S., ed., Bilingualism Across the Lifespan. New York: Routledge, pp. 165–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morford, J. P., Kroll, J. F., Piñar, P., & Wilkinson, E. (2014). Bilingual word recognition in deaf and hearing signers: Effects of proficiency and language dominance on cross-language activation. Second Language Research, 30(2), 251–271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morford, J. P., Wilkinson, E., Villwock, A., Piñar, P., & Kroll, J. F. (2011). When deaf signers read English: Do written words activate their sign translations? Cognition, 118(2), 286–292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Napoli, D. J., Mellon, N. K., Niparko, J. K., et al. (2015). Should all deaf children learn sign language? Pediatrics, 136(1), 170–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ormel, E., Giezen, M. R., & Van Hell, J. G. (2022). Cross-language activation in bimodal bilinguals: Do mouthings affect the co-activation of speech during sign recognition? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 25(4), 579–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ormel, E., Hermans, D., Knoors, H., & Verhoeven, L. (2012). Cross-language effects in written word recognition: The case of bilingual deaf children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(2), 288–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortega, G. (2017). Iconicity and sign lexical acquisition: A review. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1280. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ortega, G. & Morgan, G. (2015). Phonological development in hearing learners of a sign language: The influence of phonological parameters, sign complexity, and iconicity. Language Learning, 65(3), 660–688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortega, G., Schiefner, A., & Özyürek, A. (2019). Hearing non-signers use their gestures to predict iconic form-meaning mappings at first exposure to signs. Cognition, 191, 103996.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petitto, L. A., Katerelos, M., Levy, B. G., et al. (2001). Bilingual signed and spoken language acquisition from birth: Implications for the mechanisms underlying early bilingual language acquisition. Journal of Child Language, 28(2), 453–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pizer, G. B. (2008). Sign and speech in family interaction: Language choices of deaf parents and their hearing children. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Texas].Google Scholar
Preston, P. (1995). MOTHER FATHER DEAF: The heritage of difference. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 40, 1461–1467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pyers, J. E. & Emmorey, K. (2008). The face of bimodal bilingualism: Grammatical markers in American Sign Language are produced when bilinguals speak to English monolinguals. Psychological Science, 19(6), 531–535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quadros, R. M. de, Davidson, K., Lillo-Martin, D., & Emmorey, K. (2020). Code-blending with depicting signs. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 10(2), 290–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quadros, R. M. de, Lillo-Martin, D., & Chen Pichler, D. (2016). Bimodal bilingualism: Sign language and spoken language. In Marschark, M. & Spencer, P. E., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language: Research, Policy, and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 181–196.Google Scholar
Quadros, R. M. de, Lillo-Martin, D., & Chen Pichler, D. (2020). Blending languages: Bimodal bilinguals and language synthesis. In Zeshan, U., Webster, J., & Bradford, A., eds., Sign Multilingualism. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 201–226.Google Scholar
Rosen, R. S. (2004). Beginning L2 production errors in ASL lexical phonology. Sign Language & Linguistics, 7(1), 31–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sachs, J., Bard, B., & Johnson, M. L. (1981). Language learning with restricted input: Case studies of two hearing children of deaf parents. Applied Psycholinguistics, 2(1), 33–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sander, E. K. (1972). When are speech sounds learned? Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 37(1), 55–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sandler, W. (1989). Phonological Representation of the Sign: Linearity and Nonlinearity in American Sign Language. Dordrecht: Foris.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandler, W. (1993). A sonority cycle in American Sign Language. Phonology, 10(2), 243–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandler, W. (2012a). The phonological organization of sign languages. Language and Linguistics Compass, 6(3), 162–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sandler, W. (2012b). Visual prosody. In Pfau, R., Steinbach, M., & Woll, B., eds., Sign Language: An International Handbook. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 55–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schiff, N. B. (1979). The influence of deviant maternal input on the development of language during the preschool years. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 22(3), 581–603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schiff, N. B. & Ventry, I. M. (1976). Communication problems in hearing children of deaf parents. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 41(3), 348–358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schiff-Myers, N. B. (1982). Sign and oral language development of preschool hearing children of deaf parents in comparison with their mothers’ communication system. American Annals of the Deaf, 127(3), 322–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schiff-Myers, N. B. & Klein, H. B. (1985). Some phonological characteristics of the speech of normal-hearing children of deaf parents. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 28(4), 466–474.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, J. A. & Henner, J. (2020). Second verse, same as the first: On the use of signing systems in modern interventions for deaf and hard of hearing children in the USA. Deafness & Education International, 23(2), 123–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shook, A. & Marian, V. (2012). Bimodal bilinguals co-activate both languages during spoken comprehension. Cognition, 124(3), 314–324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singleton, J. L. & Tittle, M. D. (2000). Deaf parents and their hearing children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5(3), 221–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stokoe, W. C. ([1960] 2005). Sign language structure: An outline of the visual communication systems of the American deaf. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 10(1), 3–37. (Originally published in Studies in Linguistics, Occasional Papers, Vol. 8.)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toohey, E. (2010). Phonological development in hearing children of deaf parents. [Undergraduate honors thesis, University of Connecticut].Google Scholar
Uconn Sign Linguistics and Language Acquisition Laboratory. (2021). CODA Project. https://slla.lab.uconn.edu/coda-project/.Google Scholar
Van den Bogaerde, B. & Baker, A. (2005). Code mixing in mother-child interaction in deaf families. Sign Language and Linguistics, 8(1/2), 153–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van der Hulst, H. & van der Kooij, E. (2021). Sign language phonology: Theoretical perspectives. In Quer, J., Pfau, R., & Hermann, A., eds., The Routledge Handbook of Theoretical and Experimental Sign Language Research. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, pp. 1–32.Google Scholar
Villameriel, S., Dias, P., Costello, B., & Carreiras, M. (2016). Cross-language and cross-modal activation in hearing bimodal bilinguals. Journal of Memory and Language, 87, 59–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Villwock, A., Wilkinson, E., Piñar, P., & Morford, J. P. (2021). Language development in deaf bilinguals: Deaf middle school students co-activate written English and American Sign Language during lexical processing. Cognition, 211, 104642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitworth, C. (2011). Features and natural classes in ASL handshapes. Sign Language Studies, 12(1), 46–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, E. & Morford, J. P. (2020). How bilingualism contributes to healthy development in deaf children: A public health perspective. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 24, 1330–1338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×