Burials, Migration and Identity

doi:10.1017/9781108634311.001

1 - Burials, Migration and Identity

The View from the Sahara

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 21 June 2019

David J. Mattingly ,

Maria Carmela Gatto ,

Martin Sterry and

Edited by

N. Ray and

M. C. Gatto: Affiliation:
University of Leicester
D. J. Mattingly: Affiliation:
University of Leicester
N. Ray: Affiliation:
University of Oxford
M. Sterry: Affiliation:
University of Durham

Book contents

Get access

Summary

This book is the second volume of four proposed thematic books on aspects of the archaeology and history of what we term the Trans-Saharan zone – broadly conceived of as the vast spaces of Maghrib, Sahara and Sub-Saharan Sahel between the Atlantic in the west, the Mediterranean in the north, the Nile in the east and the equatorial African forests in the south. The territorial expanse of this zone is huge and, given the hostile climate and environment of the Sahara across the last 5,000 years, it is perhaps unsurprising that scholarly research has become regionally segmented. A good starting point for this volume is to consider to what extent the idea of a Trans-Saharan region makes sense? The chapters touch on places as far flung as the Western Sahara, the Tunisian Steppe, the Upper Nile and Lake Chad, an area of c.12,000,000 km2 within which there are significant environmental challenges to movement.

Type: Chapter
Information: Burials, Migration and Identity in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond , pp. 1 - 50

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108634311.001 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abulafia, D. 2011. The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean. London: Allen Lane.Google Scholar

Adams, W. Y., Van Gerven, D. P. and Levy, R. S. 1978. The retreat from migrationism. Annual Review of Anthropology 7: 483–532.Google Scholar

Anderson, B. 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso.Google Scholar

Anthony, D. W. 1990. Migration in archaeology: the baby and the bathwater. American Anthropologist 92: 895–914.Google Scholar

Anthony, D. W. 1992. The bath refilled: migration in archaeology again. American Anthropologist 94: 174–76.Google Scholar

Appadurai, A. (ed.). 1986. The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Arnold, B. 2002. A landscape of ancestors. The space and place of death in Iron Age West-Central Europe. In Silverman and Small 2002: 129–44.Google Scholar

Ashley, C. 2013. Archaeology and migration in Africa. In Mitchell and Lane 2013: 77–85.Google Scholar

Austen, R. A. 2010. Trans-Saharan Africa in World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Ayoub, M. S. 1967a. Excavations in Germa between 1962 to 1966. Tripoli: Ministry of Education.Google Scholar

Ayoub, M. S. 1967b. The Royal cemetery at Germa. A preliminary report. Libya Antiqua 3–4: 213–19.Google Scholar

Barker, G., Gilbertson, D., Jones, B. and Mattingly, D. J. 1996a. Farming the Desert. The UNESCO Libyan Valleys Archaeological Survey. Volume 1, Synthesis. (Principal Editor, Barker, G.). Paris, London: UNESCO, Society for Libyan Studies.Google Scholar

Barker, G., Gilbertson, D., Jones, B. and Mattingly, D. J. 1996b. Farming the Desert. The UNESCO Libyan Valleys Archaeological Survey. Volume 2, Gazetteer and Pottery (Principal Editor, Mattingly, D. J.). Paris, London: UNESCO, Society for Libyan Studies.Google Scholar

Barnard, H. and Wendrich, W. 2008. The Archaeology of Mobility: Old and New World Nomadism. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA.Google Scholar

Barrett, J. C. 1990. The monumentality of death: the character of Early Bronze Age mortuary mounds in southern Britain. World Archaeology 22.2: 179–89.Google Scholar

Bartel, B. 1982. A historical review of ethnological and archaeological analysis of mortuary practice. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1: 32–58.Google Scholar

Bates, O. 1970. The Eastern Libyans. London: Frank Cass.Google Scholar

Bellair, P., Gobert, E. G., Jodot, P. and Pauphillet, D. 1953. Mission au Fezzan (1949). Tunis: Institut des Hautes Études de Tunis.Google Scholar

Belmonte, J. A., Esteban, C., Perera Betancourt, M. and Marrero, R. 2002. Archaeoastronomy in the Sahara: the tombs of the Garamantes at Wadi al-Ajal, Fazzan, Libya. Archaeoastronomy, 27 (JHA suppl. 33): S1–S19.Google Scholar

Ben Abed-Ben Khader, A. and Griesheimer, M. (eds). 2004. La nécropole romaine de Pupput. Rome: CollEFR 323.Google Scholar

Benichou-Safar, H. 1995. Tophets et nécropoles puniques. In Trousset 1995: 91–102.Google Scholar

Ben Lazreg, N. and Mattingly, D. J. (eds). 1992. Leptiminus (Lamta): A Roman Port City in Tunisia, Report no. 1. Ann Arbor: JRA Suppl. Series.Google Scholar

Ben Younes, H. 1995. L’architecture funéraire punique au Sahel. Etat et perspectives. In Trousset 1995: 73–90.Google Scholar

Ben Younes, H. 1996. Le Sahel et l’île de Djerba: les charactérisiques del’architecture funéraire punique. Africa 14: 7–12.Google Scholar

Ben Younes, H. 2007. Interculturality and the Punic funerary world. In Stone and Stirling 2007: 32–42.Google Scholar

Ben Younes, H. and Krandel-Ben Younes, A. 2014. Punic identity in North Africa: the funerary world. In Crawley Quinn, J. and Vella, N. (eds), The Punic Mediterranean. Identities and Identification from Phoenician Settlement to Roman Rule, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 148–67.Google Scholar

Bietak, M. 1968. Studien zur Chronologie der Nubischen C-Gruppe. Ein Beitrag zur Frühges-chichte Unternubiens zwischen 2200 und 1550 vor Chr. Wien: VÖAW.Google Scholar

Bilger, V. and Kraler, A. 2005. Introduction: African migrations. Historical perspectives and contemporary dynamics. Wiener Zeitschrift für kritische Afrikastudien; Special Issue – African Migrations. Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Dynamics 8: 5–21.Google Scholar

Blench, R. 2013. Language, linguistics and archaeology: their integration into the study of African prehistory. In Mitchell and Lane 2013: 49–64.Google Scholar

Bobrowski, P., Czekaj-Zastawny, A. and Schild, R. 2014. Gebel el-Muqaddas (Site E-06-4). The early Neolithic tumuli from Nabta Playa (Western Desert, Egypt). In Anderson, J. R. and Welsby, D. A. (eds), The Fourth Cataract and Beyond, Leuven: Peeters, 293–301.Google Scholar

Boivin, N., Crowther, A., Prendergast, M. and Fuller, D. Q. 2014. Indian Ocean food globalisation and Africa. African Archaeological Review 31.4: 547–81.Google Scholar

Bokbot, Y. 1991. Habitats et monuments funéraires du Maroc protohistoriques. Thèse de Doctorat. Université de Aix-en-Provence.Google Scholar

Boozer, A. 2012. Globalizing Mediterranean identities: the overlapping spheres of Egyptian, Greek and Roman worlds at Trimithis. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 25.2: 93–116.Google Scholar

Bourdieu, P. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Brett, M. and Fentress, E. 1997. The Berbers. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar

Briand-Ponsart, C. (ed.). 2005. Identités et cultures dans l’Algérie antique. Rouen: Publications de l’Université de Rouen.Google Scholar

Briand-Ponsart, C. and Crogiez, S. (eds). 2002. L’Afrique du nord antique et médiévale: mémoire, identité et imaginaire. Rouen: Publications de l’Université de Rouen.Google Scholar

Brody, L. R. and Hoffman, G. L. (eds). 2011. Dura-Europos: Crossroads of Antiquity. Chestnut Hill: McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College.Google Scholar

Brody, L. R. and Hoffman, G. L. (eds). 2014. Roman in the Provinces. Art on the Periphery of Empire. Chestnut Hill: McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College.Google Scholar

Brogan, O. and Smith, D. J. 1985. Ghirza: A Romano-Libyan Settlement in Tripolitania. Libyan Antiquities Series 1, Tripoli.Google Scholar

Broodbank, C. 2013. The Making of the Middle Sea. A History of the Mediterranean from the Beginning to the Emergence of the Classical World. London: Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar

Brooks, N., di Lernia, S., Drake, N., Chiapello, I., Legrand, M., Moulin, C. and Prospero, J. 2005. The environment-society nexus in the Sahara from prehistoric times to the present day. The Journal of North African Studies 304: 253–92.Google Scholar

Brooks, N., Clarke, J., Crisp, J., Crivellaro, F., Jousse, H., Markiewicz, E., Nichol, M., Raffin, M., Robinson, R., Wasse, A. and Winton, V. 2006. Funerary sites in the ‘Free Zone’: report on the second and third seasons of fieldwork of the Western Sahara Project. Sahara 17: 73–94.Google Scholar

Bronk Ramsey, C. 2009. Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon date. Radiocarbon 51.1: 337–60.Google Scholar

Brubaker, R. 2004. Ethnicity without Groups. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Brubaker, R. and Cooper, F. 2000. Beyond ‘identity’. Theory and Society 29: 1–47.Google Scholar

Buikstra, J. E. 1995. Tombs for the living … or for the dead: the Osmore ancestors. In Dillehay, T. (ed.), Tombs for the Ancestors, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 229–80.Google Scholar

Burmeister, S. 2000. Archaeology and migration – approaches to an archaeological proof of migration. Current Anthropology 41.4: 539–67.Google Scholar

Camps, G. 1955. De nouveau sur l’archéologie du Fezzan. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 13: 189–98.Google Scholar

Camps, G. 1961. Aux origines de la Berbérie. Monuments et rites funéraires protohistoriques. Paris: AMG.Google Scholar

Camps, G. 1965. Le tombeau de Tin Hinan à Abalessa. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 24 : 65–83.Google Scholar

Camps, G. 1980. Berbères. Aux marges de l’histoire. Toulouse.Google Scholar

Camps, G. 1981. L’origine des Berbères. Les Cahiers du CRESM 12: 9–33.Google Scholar

Camps, G. 1984. Rex maurorum et romanorum, recherches sur les royaumes de la Maurétanie des VIème et VIIème siècles. Antiquités africaine 20: 183–218.Google Scholar

Camps, G. 1986. Funerary monuments with attached chapels from the Northern Sahara. The African Archaeological Review 4: 151–64.Google Scholar

Camps, G. 1987. Les Berbères. Mémoire et identité. Paris: Errance.Google Scholar

Camps, G. 1995. Les nécropoles mégalithiques de l’Afrique du nord. In Trousset 1995: 17–31.Google Scholar

Camps, G. 1997. Tin Hinan et sa légende. A propos du tumulus princier d’Abalessa (Ahaggar, Algérie). Bulletin archéologique du comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques ns 24: 173–95.Google Scholar

Camps, G. and Camps-Fabrer, H. 1964. La nécropole mégalithique du Djebel Mazela à Bou Nouara. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.Google Scholar

Cannon, A. 1989. The historical dimension in mortuary expressions of status and sentiment. Current Anthropology 30.4: 437–58.Google Scholar

Caputo, G. 1937. Archeologia. In Sahara Italiano 1937: 301–30.Google Scholar

Caputo, G. 1949. Scavi archeologici nel Sahara libico. Annali dell’Istituto Orientale di Napoli ns 3: 13–33.Google Scholar

Caputo, G. 1951. Parte II. In Pace, Sergi and Caputo 1951: 200–442.Google Scholar

Carroll, M. 2006. Spirits of the Dead: Roman Funerary Commemoration in Western Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Carroll, M. and Rempel, J. 2011. Living with the Dead: Burial and Commemoration in the Classical World. Oxford: Oxbow.Google Scholar

Castelli, R., Cremaschi, M., Gatto, M. C., Liverani, M. and Mori, L. 2005. A preliminary report of excavations in Fewet, Libyan Sahara. Journal of African Archaeology 3: 69–102.Google Scholar

Chapman, R. 1990. Emerging Complexity: The Later Prehistory of South-Eastern Spain, Iberia and the West Mediterranean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Chapman, J. and Dolukhanov, P. M. 1992. The baby and the bathwater: pulling the plug on migrations. American Anthropologist 94: 169–74.Google Scholar

Chapman, J. and Hamerow, H. (eds). 1997. Migration and Invasion in Archaeological Explanation. British Archaeological Reports International Series 664. Oxford: Archaeopress.Google Scholar

Chapman, R. 1981. The Archaeology of Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Chenery, C., Müldner, G. H., Evans, J., Eckardt, H., Leach, S. and Lewis, M. E. 2010. Strontium and stable isotope evidence for diet and mobility in Roman Gloucester, UK. Journal of Archaeological Science 37.1: 150–63.Google Scholar

Cherstich, L. 2008. The Southern Necropolis of Cyrene. Oxford: University of Oxford.Google Scholar

Chesson, M. S. 2001. Social memory, identity, and death: anthropological perspectives on mortuary rituals. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 10.1: 1–10.Google Scholar

Childe, V. G. 1950. Prehistoric Migrations in Archaeology. Oslo: H. Aschehoug and Co.Google Scholar

Clark, G. 1966. The invasion hypothesis in British archaeology. Antiquity 11: 172–89.Google Scholar

Clarke, J. and Brooks, N. (eds). 2018. The Prehistory of Western Sahara: A Synthesis of Fieldwork, 2002 to 2009. Oxford: Oxbow Books.Google Scholar

Conant, J. 2012. Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean, 439–700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Cool, H. 2004. The Roman Cemetery at Brougham, Cumbria: Excavations 1966–67. London: Roman Society.Google Scholar

Cremaschi, M. 2001. Holocene climatic changes in an archaeological landscape: the case study of Wadi Tanezzuft and its drainage basin (SW Fezzan, Libyan Sahara). Libyan Studies 32: 3–27.Google Scholar

Cremaschi, M. and di Lernia, S. (eds). 1998. Wadi Teshuinat. Palaeoenvironment and Prehistory in South-western Fezzan (Libyan Sahara). Survey and Excavations in the Tadrart Acacus, Erg Uan Kasa, Messak Sattafet and Edeyen of Murzuq, 1990–1995. Milan: CNR.Google Scholar

Cremaschi, M. and Zerboni, A. 2009. Early to Middle Holocene landscape exploitation in a drying environment: two case studies compared from the Central Sahara (SW Fezzan, Libya). C.R. Geoscience 341: 689–702.Google Scholar

Cremaschi, M and Zerboni, A. 2011. Human communities in a drying landscape. Holocene climate change and cultural response in the central Sahara. In Martini, I. P. and Chesworth, W. (eds), Landscape and Societies, Selected Cases, Springer, London, 67–89.Google Scholar

Croucher, S. L. 2003. Globalization and Belonging: The Politics of Identity in a Changing World. Lanham, Boulder, New York: Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar

Cuénod, A., Duckworth, C. and Mattingly, D. J. Forthcoming. Mobile Technologies in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. Trans-Saharan Archaeology Volume IV, Series editor Mattingly, D. J.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and The Society for Libyan Studies.Google Scholar

Daniels, C. M. 1970. The Garamantes of Southern Libya. London: Oleander.Google Scholar

Daniels, C. M. 1989. Excavation and fieldwork amongst the Garamantes. Libyan Studies 20: 45–61.Google Scholar

Daróczi, T. T. 2012. Death, disposal and social memory – towards a definition of funerary landscapes. Journal for Ancient Studies 3: 199–207.Google Scholar

De Bruijn, M., van Dijk, R. and Foeken, D. 2001. Mobile Africa. Changing Patterns of Movement in Africa and Beyond. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar

Delibrias, G., Guillier, M. T. and Labeyrie, J. 1982. GIF Natural Radiocarbon Measurements IX. Radiocarbon 24.3, 291–343.Google Scholar

DeMenocal, P. B. and Tierney, J. E. 2012. Green Sahara: African humid periods paced by Earth’s orbital changes. Nature Education Knowledge 3.10: 12.Google Scholar

De Prorok, B. K. 2001. In Quest of Lost Worlds: Five Archaeological Expeditions 1925–1934. Santa Barbara: Narrative Press (reprint of 1935 book).Google Scholar

Derks, T. and Roymans, N. (eds). 2009. Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.Google Scholar

Déroche, F. and Leclant, J. (eds). 2010. Monuments et cultes funéraires d’Afrique du Nord. Paris: Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres.Google Scholar

Diaz Andreu, M., Lucy, S., Babic, S. and Edwards, D. 2005. The Archaeology of Identity: Approaches to Gender, Age, Status, Ethnicity and Religion. London: Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar

Dietler, M. 2010. Archaeologies of Colonialism: Consumption, Entanglement, and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

di Lernia, S. 2006. Building monuments, creating identity: cattle cult as a social response to rapid environmental change in the Holocene Sahara. Quaternary International 151.1: 50–62.Google Scholar

di Lernia, S. 2013. The emergence and spread of herding in Northern Africa: a critical reappraisal. In Mitchell and Lane 2013, 527–40.Google Scholar

di Lernia, S. and Manzi, G. (eds). 2002. Sands, Stones and Bones. The Archaeology of Death in the Wadi Tanezzuft Valley (5000–2000 BP). AZA 3. Firenze: All’Insegna del Giglio.Google Scholar

di Lernia, S., and Tafuri, M. A. 2013. Persistent deathplaces and mobile landmarks. The Holocene mortuary and isotopic record from Wadi Takarkori (SW Libya). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 32: 1–15.Google Scholar

di Lernia, S., Manzi, G. and Merighi, F. 2002. Cultural variability and human trajectories in later prehistory of the Wadi Tanezzuft. In di Lernia and Manzi 2002, 281–302.Google Scholar

di Lernia, S., Bertolani, G. B., Merighi, F., Ricci, F. R., Manzi, G. and Cremaschi, M. 2001. Megalithic architecture and funerary practices in the late prehistory of Wadi Tenezzuft (Libyan Sahara). Libyan Studies 32: 29–48.Google Scholar

Dillehay, T. (ed.). 1995. Tombs for the Ancestors. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.Google Scholar

Di Vita, A. 1976. Il mausoleo punico-ellenistico B di Sabratha. RM 83: 273–85.Google Scholar

Dodson, A. and Ikram, S. 2008. The Tomb in Ancient Egypt: Royal and Private Sepulchres from the Early Dynastic Period to the Romans. London: Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar

Drake, N., Wilson, A., Pelling, R., White, K., Mattingly, D. J. and Black, S. 2004. Water table decline, springline desiccation and the early development of irrigated agriculture in the Wadi al-Ajal, Libyan Fazzan. Libyan Studies 35: 95–112.Google Scholar

Drake, N. A., Blench, R. M., Armitage, S. J., Bristow, C. S. and White, K. H. 2011. Ancient watercourses and biogeography of the Sahara explain the peopling of the desert. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of America 108: 458–62.Google Scholar

Dreyer, G. 1992. Zur Rekonstruktion der Oberbauten der Königsgräber der 1. Dynastie in Abydos. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 47: 93–104.Google Scholar

Duday, H. 2009. The Archaeology of the Dead. Lectures in Archaeothanatology. Oxford: Oxbow.Google Scholar

Dupuy, C. 2010. Les apports archéologiques des gravures rupestres de l’Aïr (Niger) et de l’Adrar des Iforas (Mali). Les Nouvelles d’archéologie 120–121: 29–37.Google Scholar

Eckardt, H. (ed.). 2010a. Roman Diasporas: Archaeological Approaches to Mobility and Diversity in the Roman Empire. Portsmouth, Rhode Island: Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplement series.Google Scholar

Eckardt, H. 2010b. A long way from home: diaspora communities in Roman Britain. In: Eckardt 2010a: 99–130.Google Scholar

Eckardt, H., Booth, P., Chenery, C., Müldner, G. H., Evans, J. A. and Lamb, A. 2009. Oxygen and strontium isotope evidence for mobility in Roman Winchester. Journal of Archaeological Science 36.12: 2816–25.Google Scholar

Eckardt, H., Muldner, G. and Lewis, M. 2014. People on the move in Roman Britain. World Archaeology 46.4: 534–50.Google Scholar

Edwards, D. N. 2004. The Nubian Past. An Archaeology of Sudan. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

el-Rashedy, F. 1988. Garamantian burial customs: their relation to those of other peoples of North Africa. In Libya Antiqua. Report and papers of the symposium organized by UNESCO in Paris, 16 to 18 January 1984. Paris: 77–105.Google Scholar

Fauvelle, F. 2016. What is trade about? A political ecology of Trans-Saharan trade and a taphonomic approach to its remains. In the 23rd Biannual Meeting of the Society of Africanist Archaeologists, What Past for Africa? Abstract Volume, Toulouse, Université Jean Jaurès, 26 June–2 July 2016, 194–95.Google Scholar

Fenn, T. R., Killick, D. J., Chesley, J., Magnavita, S., and Ruiz, J. 2009. Contacts between West Africa and Roman North Africa: archaeometallurgical results from Kissi, northeastern Burkina Faso. In Magnavita et al. 2009: 119–46.Google Scholar

Fentress, E. and Wilson, A. 2016. The Saharan Berber diaspora and the southern frontiers of Byzantine North Africa. In Stevens, S. T. and Conant, J. P. (eds), North Africa under Byzantium and Early Islam, Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Symposia and Colloquia 7, Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 41–63.Google Scholar

Ferjaoui, A. 2007. Le sanctuaire de Henchir el-Hami de Ba’al hammon au Saturn Afriicaine 1er s. av J. C. – Ive s. ap. J. C. Tunis: INP.Google Scholar

Fontana, S. 1995. I manufatti romani dei corredi funerari del Fezzan. Testimonianza dei commerci e della cultura dei Garamanti (I–III sec.d. C.). In Productions et exportations Africaines. Actualités archéologiques en Afrique du nord Antique et Médiévale. Roma: Edition du CTHS, 405–20.Google Scholar

Friedman, R. F. 2001. Excavations in the Nubians Cemeteries. Sudan & Nubia 5: 29–37.Google Scholar

Friedman, R. F. 2004. Excavation of the C-Group cemetery at HK27C, Hierakonpolis. Sudan & Nubia 8: 47–51.Google Scholar

Friedman, R. F. 2007. The C-Group cemetery at Locality HK27C: Results of the 2007 Season. Sudan & Nubia 11: 57–62.Google Scholar

Friedman, R. F., Van Neer, V. and Linseele, V. 2011. The elite Predynastic cemetery at Hierakonpolis: 2009–2010 update. In Friedman, R. F. and Fiske, P. N. (eds), Egypt at Its Origins 3. Proceedings of the Third International Conference Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt. London, 27th July–1st August 2008, Peeters: Leuven, 157–91.Google Scholar

Garcea, E. A. A. 2013. Gobero: The No-Return Frontier. Archaeology and Landscape at the Saharo-Sahelian Borderland. Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag.Google Scholar

Gardner, A. (ed.). 2004. Agency Uncovered: Archaeological Perspectives on Social Agency, Power, and Being Human. London: University College London Press.Google Scholar

Gardner, A. 2007. An Archaeology of Identity: Soldiers and Society in Late Roman Britain. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.Google Scholar

Gardner, A., Herring, E., Lomas, K. (eds). 2013. Creating Ethnicities and Identities in the Roman World. London: Institute of Classical Studies.Google Scholar

Gatto, M. C. 2005. Nubians in Egypt: Survey in the Aswan-Kom Ombo Region. Sudan & Nubia 9: 73–76.Google Scholar

Gatto, M. C. 2011. The Nubian pastoral culture as link between Egypt and Africa: a view from the archaeological record. In Exell, K. (ed.), Egypt and Its African Context, Oxford: Archaeopress, 21–29.Google Scholar

Gatto, M. C. 2012. The Holocene prehistory of the Nubian Eastern Desert. In Barnard, H. and Duistermaat, B. (eds), History of the People of the Eastern Desert from Prehistory to Present, Los Angeles: UCLA/CIOA Press, 42–57.Google Scholar

Gatto, M. C. 2013. Late Prehistoric sites in the area between Aswan and Ombo, Kom. In Raue, D., Seidlmayer, S. J. and Speiser, P. (eds), The First Cataract of the Nile–One Region, Diverse Perspectives, Berlin: De Gruyter, 59–65, pl. 11–13.Google Scholar

Gatto, M. C. and Zerboni, A. 2015. Holocene supra-regional environmental crises as motor for major socio-cultural changes in Northeastern Africa and the Sahara. African Archaeological Review 32: 301–333.Google Scholar

Gatto, M. C., Curci, A. and Urcia, A. 2014. Nubian evidence in the Egyptian First Nome: Results of the 2013–2014 field seasons of the Aswan-Kom Ombo Archaeological Project (AKAP). Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 6.4: 38–41.Google Scholar

Gauthier, Y. 2015. Pre-Islamic dry-stone monuments of the central and western Sahara. In Ruggles, C. L. N. (ed.), Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag GmbH, 1059–77.Google Scholar

Gauthier, Y. and Gauthier, C. 1999. Orientation et distribution de divers types de monuments lithiques du Messak et des régions voisines (Fezzan, Libye). Sahara 11: 87–108.Google Scholar

Gauthier, Y. and Gauthier, C. 2007. Monuments funéraires sahariens et aires culturelles. Les Cahiers de l’AARS 11: 65–78.Google Scholar

Gauthier, Y. and Gauthier, C. 2011. Des chars et des Tifinagh: étude aréale et corrélations. Les Cahiers de l’AARS 15: 91–118.Google Scholar

Giddens, A. 1984. The Constitution of Society. Outline of the Theory of Structuration. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar

Gonzalez Rodriguez, M. 2014. Death Is Another Country. Mortuary Rituals and Cultural Identity in Fazzan, Libya. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Leicester.Google Scholar

Gosden, C. 2005. What do objects want? Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 12: 193–211.Google Scholar

Gosden, C. and Marshall, Y. 1999. The cultural biography of objects. World Archaeology 31.2: 169–78.Google Scholar

Gosselain, O. P. 2000. Materializing identities: an African perspective. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 7.3: 187–217.Google Scholar

Gowland, R. and Knusel, C. 2009. The Social Archaeology of Funerary Remains. Oxford: Oxbow Books.Google Scholar

Graham, E. J. 2009. Becoming persons, becoming ancestors. Personhood, memory and the corpse in Roman rituals of social remembrance. Archaeological Dialogues 16.1: 51–74.Google Scholar

Hachid, M. 2000. Les premiers berbères. Entre Méditerranée, Tassili et Nil. Aix-en-Provence: Edisud.Google Scholar

Hachid, M. 2006. Du nouveau sur le monument d’Abalessa (Ahaggar, Algérie). De la date de l’introduction du dromadaire au Sahara central, du personnage d’Abalessa et des inscriptions rupestres dites ‘libyco-berbères’. Sahara 17: 95–120.Google Scholar

Hackenbeck, S. 2008. Migration in archaeology: are we nearly there yet? Archaeological Review from Cambridge 23.2: 9–26.Google Scholar

Hales, S. and Hodos, T. (eds). 2010. Material Culture and Social Identities in the Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Hall, J. 1997. Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Halsall, G. 2008. The Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Haour, A. and Rossi, B. 2000. Being and Becoming Hausa: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Leiden and Boston: Brill.Google Scholar

Härke, H. 1998. Archaeologists and migrations. Current Anthropology 39.1: 19–45.Google Scholar

Härke, H. 2004. The debate on migration and identity in Europe. Antiquity 78: 453–56.Google Scholar

Harris, W. V. 2005. Rethinking the Mediterranean. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Hawas, Z. 2000. Valley of the Golden Mummies. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.Google Scholar

Heather, P. 2009. Empire and Barbarians: Migration, Development and the Birth of Europe. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar

Hingley, R. 2005. Globalising Roman Culture: Unity, Diversity and Empire. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Hitchner, R. B. 1995. The culture of death and the invention of culture in Roman Africa. Journal of Roman Archaeology 8: 493–98.Google Scholar

Hoffman, G. L. 2011. Theory and methodology: study of identities using archaeological evidence from Dura-Europos. In Brody, L. R. and Hoffman, G. L. (eds), Dura-Europos: Crossroads of Antiquity, Chestnut Hill: McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College, 45–69.Google Scholar

Holl, A. 1986. Economie et société néolithique du Dhar Tichitt (Mauritanie). Paris: EditionsGoogle Scholar

Hope, V. M. 1997. Words and pictures: the interpretation of Romano-British tombstones. Britannia 28: 245–58.Google Scholar

Hope, V. M. 2001. Constructing Identity: The Roman Funerary Monuments of Aquileia, Mainz and Nimes. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.Google Scholar

Horden, P. and Purcell, N. 2000. The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar

Hu, D. 2013. Approaches to the archaeology of ethnogenesis: past and emergent perspectives. Journal of Archaeological Research 21.4: 371–402.Google Scholar

Hubschmann, C. 2010. Igai: a little-known deity from Dakhleh Oasis. Rosetta 8: 42–61.Google Scholar

Ibn, Khaldūn. 1958. The Muqaddimah: An introduction to history. Translated from the Arabic by Franz Rosenthal. 3 vols. New York: Princeton.Google Scholar

Ikram, S. 2015. Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.Google Scholar

Insoll, T. 2007. The Archaeology of Identities: A Reader. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Isaac, B. 2004. The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Jones, S. 1997. The Archaeology of Ethnicity: Constructing Identities in the Past and Present. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Kallala, N. and Sanmartí, J. 2011. Althiburos I. La fouille dans l’aire du capitole et la nécropole méridionale. Taragona: Institut Català d’Arqueologia Clàssica.Google Scholar

Kallala, N., Sanmartí, J., Jornet, R., Belarte, M. C., Canela, J., Chérif, S., Campillo, J., Montanero, D., Miniaoui, S., Bermúdez, X., Fadrique, T., Revilla, V., Ramon, J. and Ben Moussa, M. 2014. La nécropole mégalithique de la région d’Athiburos, dans le massif du Ksour (Gouvernorat du Kef, Tunisie). Fouille de trois monuments. Antiquités Africaines 50: 19–60.Google Scholar

Kallala, J., Sanmartí, J. (directors) and Belarte, M. C. (ed.). 2018. Althiburos III. La nécropole protohistorique de Althiburos-Massif du Ksour. Taragona: Institut Català d’Arqueologia Clàssica.Google Scholar

Keenleyside, A., Schwarcz, H., Stirling, L. and Ben Lazreg, N. 2009. Stable isotopic evidence for diet in a Roman and late Roman population from Leptiminus, Tunisia. Journal of Archaeological Science 36: 51–63.Google Scholar

Kiethéga, J. B., Sidibé, S. and Bedaux, R. M. A. 1993. Les pratiques funéraires. In Devisse, J. (ed.), Vallées du Niger, Paris: Editions de la Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 425–40.Google Scholar

Khalaf, N. 2016. A Field Survey and Geographical Information System (GIS) Based Investigation of the Archaeological Landscape in the Niger River Valley, Republic of Benin. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of East Anglia, UK.Google Scholar

Klute, G. and Hahn, H. P. (eds). 2008. Cultures of Migration: African Perspectives. Münster: Lit Verlag.Google Scholar

Kote, L. 2000. L’archéologie funéraire. In Vernet, R. (ed.), L’archéologie en Afrique de l’Ouest. Sahara et Sahel, Nouakchott: Editions Sepia, 51–58.Google Scholar

Krandel-Ben Younes, A. 2002. La presence punique en pays numide. Tunis: INP.Google Scholar

Krandel-Ben Younes, A. 2013. Les Numides quelle identité Libyque ou punique? Africa 23: 45–59.Google Scholar

Kuper, R. and Kropelin, S. 2006. Climate-controlled Holocene occupation in the Sahara: motor of Africa’s evolution. Science 313: 803–07.Google Scholar

Lahr, M. M. 2010. Saharan corridors and their role in the evolutionary geography of ‘Out of Africa I’. In Fleagle, J. J., Shea, J. J., Grine, F. E., Baden, A. L. and Leakey, R. E. (eds), Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia, New York: Springer, 27–46.Google Scholar

Laporte, L., Bocoum, H., Cros, J. P., Delvoye, A., Bernard, R., Diallo, M., Diop, M., Kane, A., Dartois, V., Lejay, M., Bertin, F. and Quesnel, L. 2012. Megalithic monumentality in Africa: from graves to stone circles at Wanar, Senegal. Antiquity 86.332: 409–27.Google Scholar

Larrasoaña, J. C., Roberts, A. P. and Rohling, E. J. 2013. Dynamics of Green Sahara periods and their role in hominin evolution. PLoS ONE 8.10: e76514.Google Scholar

Laurence, R. and Berry, J. 1998. Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Leach, S., Lewis, M. E., Chenery, C., Müldner, G. H. and Eckardt, H. 2009. Migration and diversity in Roman Britain: a multidisciplinary approach to immigrants in Roman York, England. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 140.3: 546–61.Google Scholar

Leach, S., Eckardt, H., Chenery, C., and Lewis, M. 2010. A Lady of York: migration, ethnicity and identity in Roman Britain. Antiquity 84.323: 131–45.Google Scholar

Leary, J. 2014. Past Mobilities: Archaeological Approaches to Movement and Mobility. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar

Lechtman, H. 1977. Style in technology: some early thoughts. In Lechtman, H. and Merrill, R. S. (eds), Material Culture: Style, Organization and Dynamics of Technology, New York: West Publishing Co., 3–20.Google Scholar

Lewicki, T. 1976/1983. Etudes maghrebiennes et soudanaises, 2 vols. Warsaw: Éditions scientifiques de Pologne.Google Scholar

Lhote, H. 1984. Le Hoggar. Espace et temps. Paris: Armand Colin.Google Scholar

Lichtenberger, A. 2016. ‘Sea without water’ – Conceptualising the Sahara and the Mediterranean. In Dabag, M., Haller, D., Jaspert, N. and Lichtenberger, A. (eds), New Horizons. Mediterranean Research in the 21st Century, Paderborn: Ferdinand Schoningh, 267–83.Google Scholar

Lihoreau, M. 1993. Djorf Torba, nécropole saharienne antéislamique. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar

Liverani, M. (ed.). 2006. Aghram Nadarif. A Garamantian citadel in the Wadi Tannezzuft. AZA 5. Firenze: All’Insegna del Giglio.Google Scholar

Longerstay, M. 1995. Les haouanet. Etat de la question. In Trousset 1995: 33–53.Google Scholar

Longerstay, M. 2011. La présence de haouanet definit-elle une identité régionale dans le nord de la Proconsulaire. In Briand-Ponsart, C. and Modéran, Y.. (eds), Provinces et identités provincials dans l’Afrique romaine, Caen: CRAHM, 189–200.Google Scholar

Lucy, S. 2005. Ethnic and cultural identities. In Díaz Andreu et al. 2005: 86–109.Google Scholar

Lydon, G. 2009. On Trans-Saharan Trails: Islamic Law, Trade Networks and Cross-cultural Exchange in Nineteenth-century Western Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

MacDonald, K. C., Vernet, R., Martinon-Torres, M. and Fuller, D. Q. 2009. Dhar Ne´ma: From early agriculture to metallurgy in southeastern Mauritania. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 44: 3–48.Google Scholar

MacEachern, S. 2013. Genetics and archaeology. In Mitchell and Lane 2013: 65–76.Google Scholar

McIntosh, S. K. and McIntosh, R. J. 1980. Prehistoric Investigations in the Region of Jenne, Mali: Part I. Oxford: Archeopress.Google Scholar

Magnavita, S. 2003. The beads of Kissi, Burkina Faso. Journal of African Archaeology 1.1: 127–38.Google Scholar

Magnavita, S. 2008. The oldest textiles from sub-Saharan West Africa: woolen facts from Kissi, Burkina Faso. Journal of African Archaeology 6.2: 243–57.Google Scholar

Magnavita, S. 2009. Sahelian crossroads: Some aspects on the Iron Age sites of Kissi, Burkina Faso. In Magnavita et al. 2009: 79–104.Google Scholar

Magnavita, S. 2014. 1500 Jahre am Mare de Kissi. Eine Fallstudie zur Besiedlungsgeschichte des Sahel von Burkina Faso. Frankfurt: Africa Magna.Google Scholar

Magnavita, S., Koté, L., Breunig, P. and Idé, O. A. (eds). 2009. Crossroads/Carrefour Sahel. Cultural and Technological Developments in First Millennium BC/AD West Africa. Journal of African Archaeology Monograph Series 2. Frankfurt am Main: Africa Magna Verlag.Google Scholar

Manning, K. and Timpson, A. 2014. The demographic response to Holocene climate change in the Sahara. Quaternary Science Reviews 101: 28–35.Google Scholar

Marshall, E. 1998. Constructing the self and the other in Cyrenaica. In Laurence and Berry 1998: 49–64.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. 1999. The art of the unexpected: Ghirza in the Libyan pre-desert. In Lancel, S. (ed.), Numismatique, langues, écriture et arts du livre, spécificité des arts figures Afrique du Nord antique et médiévale, Paris: CTHS, 383–405.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. 2000. Ammon. In Talbert, R. (ed.), Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, Princeton: Princeton University Press, map 73 and Map-by-Map Directory, 1108–16.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. (ed.). 2003. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 1, Synthesis. London: Society for Libyan Studies, Department of Antiquities.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. 2004. Being Roman: expressing identity in a provincial setting. Journal of Roman Archaeology 17: 5–25.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. 2006. An Imperial Possession. Britain in the Roman Empire. London: Penguin.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. (ed.). 2007a. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 2, Site Gazetteer, Pottery and other Survey Finds. London: Society for Libyan Studies, Department of Antiquities.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. 2007b. The African way of death: burial rituals beyond the Roman Empire. In Stone and Stirling 2007: 138–63.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. (ed.). 2010. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 3, Excavations Carried Out by C. M. Daniels. London: Society for Libyan Studies, Department of Antiquities.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. 2011. Imperialism, Power and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. (ed.). 2013. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 4, Survey and Excavations at Old Jarma (Ancient Garama) Carried Out by C. M. Daniels (1962–69) and the Fazzan Project (1997–2001). London: Society for Libyan Studies, Department of Antiquities.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. 2014. Identities in the Roman world: discrepancy, heterogeneity, hybridity and plurality. In Brody and Hoffmann 2014: 32–61.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J. and Edwards, D. 2003. Religious and funerary structures. In Mattingly 2003: 177–234.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J., Lahr, M., Armitage, S., Barton, H., Dore, J., Drake, N., Foley, R., Merlo, S., Salem, M., Stock, J. and White, K. 2007. Desert Migrations: people, environment and culture in the Libyan Sahara. Libyan Studies 38: 115–56.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J., Dore, J. and Lahr, M. M., with contributions by Ahmed, M., Cole, F., Crisp, J., Rodriguez Gonzales, M., Hobson, M., Ismayer, M., Leitch, V., Moussa, F., Nikita, E., Reeds, I., Savage, T. and Sterry, M. 2008. DMP II: 2008 fieldwork on burials and identity in the Wadi al-Ajal. Libyan Studies 39: 223–62.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J., Lahr, M. M. and Wilson, A., with contributions by Abduli, H., Ahmed, M., Baker, S., Cole, F., Rodriguez Gonzales, M., Hobson, M., Leitch, V., Moussa, F., Nikita, E., Radini, A., Reeds, I., Savage, T. and Sterry, M. 2009. DMP V: investigations in 2009 of cemeteries and related sites on the west side of the Taqallit promontory. Libyan Studies 40: 95–131.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J., Abduli, H., Aburgheba, H., Ahmed, M., Ali Ahmed Esmaia, M., Baker, S., Cole, F., Fenwick, C., Gonzalez Rodriguez, M., Hobson, M., Khalaf, N., Lahr, M. M., Leitch, V., Moussa, F., Nikita, E., Parker, D., Radini, A., Ray, N., Savage, T., Sterry, M. and Schörle, K. 2010a. DMP IX: Summary report on the fourth season of excavations of the Burials and Identity team. Libyan Studies 41: 89–104.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J., al-Aghab, S., Ahmed, A., Moussa, F., Sterry, M. and Wilson, A. 2010b. DMP X: Survey and landscape conservation issues around the Taqallit headland. Libyan Studies 41: 105–32.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J., Abduli, H., Ahmed, M., Cole, F., Fenwick, C., Fothergill, B. T., Gonzalez Rodriguez, M., Hobson, M., Khalaf, N., Lahr, M. M., Moussa, F., Nikita, E., Nikolaus, J., Radini, A., Ray, N., Savage, T., Sterry, M. and Wilson, A. 2011. DMP XII: excavations and survey of the so-called Garamantian Royal Cemetery (GSC030-031). Libyan Studies 42: 89–102.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J., Leitch, V., Duckworth, C. N., Cuenod, A., Sterry, M. and Cole, F. (eds). 2017a. Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. Trans–Saharan Archaeology Volume I. Series Editor Mattingly, D. J.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Society for Libyan Studies.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J., Bokbot, Y., Sterry, M., Cuénod, A., Fenwick, C., Gatto, M., Ray, N., Rayne, L., Janin, K., Lamb, A., Mugnai, N. and Nikolaus, J. 2017b. Long-term history in a Moroccan oasis zone: the Middle Draa Project 2015. Journal of African Archaeology 15.2: 141–72.Google Scholar

Mattingly, D. J., Sterry, M. and Fothergill, B. T. Forthcoming. Animal traffic in the Sahara. In Blanc-Bijon, V. (ed.), XIe Colloque international “Histoire et Archéologie de l’Afrique du Nord”, Aix-en-Provence.Google Scholar

Mayor, A., Huysecom, E., Ozainnea, S. and Magnavita, S. 2014. Early social complexity in the Dogon Country (Mali) as evidenced by a new chronology of funerary practices. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 34: 17–41.Google Scholar

Merrills, A. and Miles, R. 2010. The Vandals. Blackwell Peoples of Europe. Oxford, Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar

Meskell, L. 1999. Archaeologies of life and death. American Journal of Archaeology 103.2: 181–99.Google Scholar

Meskell, L. 2001. Archaeologies of identity. In Hodder, I. (ed.), Archaeological Theory Today, Cambridge: Polity Press, 187–213.Google Scholar

Milburn, M. 1981. Multi-arm tombs of the Central Sahara. Antiquity 55: 210–14.Google Scholar

Milburn, M. 1983. On the keyhole tombs (‘monuments en trou de serrure’) of Central Sahara. Libya Antiqua 13–14 (1976–1977) [1983]: 385–90.Google Scholar

Milburn, M. 1993. Saharan stone monuments, rock pictures and artefact contemporaneity: some suggestions. In Calegari, G. (ed.), L’arte el’ambiente del Sahara preistorico, Milan: Memorie della Società Italiana di Scienze Naturali, 363–74.Google Scholar

Milburn, M. 1996. Some recent dates for central and southern Sahara including monuments. Sahara 8: 99–103.Google Scholar

Mitchell, P. and Lane, P. 2013. The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Modéran, Y. 2003. Les Maures et l’Afrique romaine IVe-VIIe siècle. Bibliothèque des Ecoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 314. Rome: Ecole française de Rome.Google Scholar

Modéran, Y. and Perrin, M. Y. 2014. Les Vandales et l’Empire romain. Paris: Errance – Actes Sud.Google Scholar

Mohammed, F. A. 1998. El Jaghbub. In Catani, E. and Maria Marengo, S. (eds), La Cirenaica in età antica, Macerata: 263–73.Google Scholar

Moore, J. P. 2007. The ‘mausoleum culture’ of Africa Proconsularis. In Stone and Stirling 2007: 75–109.Google Scholar

Mori, L. (ed.). 2013. Life and Death of a Rural Village in Garamantian Times. Archaeological Investigations in the Oasis of Fewet (Libyan Sahara). AZA 6. Firenze: All’Insegna del Giglio.Google Scholar

Mouritsen, H. 2011. The Freedman in the Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Mugnai, N., Nikolaus, J. and Ray, N. 2016. De Africa Romaque. Merging Cultures across North Africa. London: Society for Libyan Studies.Google Scholar

Munson, P. J. 1980. Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana Empire. Journal of African History 21: 457–66.Google Scholar

Nikolaus, J. 2016. Beyond Ghirza: Roman-period mausolea in Tripolitania. In Mugnai et al. 2016: 199–214.Google Scholar

O’Shea, J. M. 1984. Mortuary Variability: an Archaeological Investigation. Orlando: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Osborne, R. 2008. Introduction: for tradition as an analytical category. World Archaeology 40.3: 281–94.Google Scholar

Paris, F. 1984. La région d’In Gall – Tegidda-n Tesemt (Niger). Programme archéologique d’urgence 1977–1981. III. Les sépultures du néolothique final à l’Islam. Niamey : Institut de Recherches en Sciences Humaines.Google Scholar

Paris, F. 1990. Les sépultures monumentales d’Iwelen (Niger). Journal des Africanistes 60.1: 47–75.Google Scholar

Paris, F. 1995. Essai de classification des monuments funéraires sahariens. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 92.4: 549–53.Google Scholar

Paris, F. 1996. Les sépultures du Sahara nigérian, du Néoloithique à l’Islamisation. 2 vols, Paris: Bondy.Google Scholar

Parker-Pearson, M. 1999. The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Stroud: Sutton.Google Scholar

Parker-Pearson, M. and Ramilisonina, 1998. Stonehenge for the ancestors: the stones pass on the message. Antiquity 72.276: 308–26.Google Scholar

Pearce, J. 2010. Burial, identity and migration in the Roman provinces. In Eckardt 2010a: 79–98.Google Scholar

Pearce, J. 2011. Marking the dead: tombs and topography in the Roman provinces. In Caroll and Rempel 2011: 134–58.Google Scholar

Pearce, J. 2013. Contextual Archaeology of Burial Practice: Case-Studies from Roman Britain. Oxford: Archaeopress.Google Scholar

Pearce, J. 2015. Urban exits: commercial archaeology and the study of death rituals and the dead in the towns of Roman Britain. In Fulford, M. and Holbrook, N. (eds), The Towns of Roman Britain. The Contribution of Commercial Archaeology since 1990, London: Society for Roman Studies, 138–66.Google Scholar

Pearce, J., Millett, M. and Struck, M. 2000. Burial, Society and Context in the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxbow.Google Scholar

Petit-Maire, N. and Riser, J. (eds). 1983. Sahara ou Sahel? Quaternaire récent du Bassin de Taoudenni (Mali). Marseille: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.Google Scholar

Pfaffenberger, B. 1992. Social Anthropology of Technology. Annual Review of Anthropology 21: 491–516.Google Scholar

Philpott, R. 1991. Burial Practices in Roman Britain: a Survey of Grave Treatment and Furnishings, AD 43–410. Oxford: Archaeopress.Google Scholar

Pitts, M. 2007. The Emperor’s new clothes? The utility of identity in Roman archaeology. American Journal of Archaeology 111.4: 693–713.Google Scholar

Pitts, M. and Versluys, M. J. (eds). 2015. Globalisation and the Roman World. World History. Connectivity and Material Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Pohl, W. and Reimitz, G. (eds). 1998. Strategies of Distinction. The Construction of Ethnic Communities 300–800. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar

Porter, A. 2012. Mobile Pastoralism and the Formation of Near Eastern Civilizations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Prag, J. and Quinn, J. 2013. The Hellenistic West. Rethinking the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Rakob, F. 1979. Numidische Königsarchitektur in Nordafrika. In Horn, H. G. and Ruger, C. B. (eds), Die Numider: Reiter und Könige nördlich der Sahara, Bonn, 119–71.Google Scholar

Ralston, I. 2002. Exploring the secret of the gebel. Nekhen News 14: 19–20.Google Scholar

Rebillard, E. 2012. Christians and Their Many Identities in Late Antiquity: North Africa 200–450 CE. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Reimer, P. J., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J. W., Blackwell, P. G., Bronk Ramsey, C., Grootes, P. M., Guilderson, T. P., Haflidason, H., Hajdas, I., Hatté, C., Heaton, T. J., Hoffmann, D. L., Hogg, A. G., Hughen, K. A., Kaiser, K. F., Kromer, B., Manning, S. W., Niu, M., Reimer, R. W., Richards, D. A., Scott, E. M., Southon, J. R., Staff, R. A., Turney, C. S. M., and van der Plicht, J. 2013. IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves 0–50,000 Years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55.4: 1869–87.Google Scholar

Renfrew, C. 1987. Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. London: Jonathan Cape.Google Scholar

Renfrew, C. 2000. Archaeogenetics: towards a population prehistory of Europe. In Boyle, K. (ed.), Archaeogenetics: DNA and the Population Prehistory of Europe, Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 3–11.Google Scholar

Reygasse, M. 1950. Monuments funéraires préislamiques de l’Afrique du Nord. Paris: Arts et Métiers Graphiques.Google Scholar

Roset, J. P. 1986. Iwelen – an archaeological site of the chariot period in Northern Aïr, Niger. In Libya Antiqua Paris: UNESCO, 13–46.Google Scholar

Rouse, I. 1986. Migrations in Prehistory. New Haven, London: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Salvatori, S. and Usai, D. (eds). 2008. A Neolithic Cemetery in the Northern Dongola Reach. Excavations at Site R12. SARS 16. Oxford: Archaeopress.Google Scholar

Sanmartí, J., Kallala, N., Belarte, M. C., Ramon, J., Telmini, B. M., Jornet, R. and Miniaoui, S. 2012. Filling gaps in the protohistory of the eastern Maghreb: the Althiburos Archaeological Project (el Kef, Tunisia). Journal of African Archaeology 10.1: 21–44.Google Scholar

Savary, J. P. 1966. Monuments en pierres sèches du Sadnoun (Tassili n’Ajjer). Paris: Mémoires du centre de recherches anthropologiques préhistoriques et ethnographiques.Google Scholar

Saxe, A. 1970. Social Dimensions of Mortuary Practices. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Michigan.Google Scholar

Sellet, F. 1993. Châine opératoire: the concept and its applications. Lithic Technology 18.1–2: 106–12.Google Scholar

Sen, A. 2006. Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Destiny. New York: Norton.Google Scholar

Sereno, P. C., Garcea, E. A. A., Jousse, H., Stojanowski, C. M., Saliège, J. F., Maga, A., Ide, O. A., Knudson, K. J., Mercuri, A. M., Stafford, T. W. Jr., Kaye, T. G., Giraudi, C., N’siala, I. M., Cocca, E., Moots, H. M., Dutheil, D. B. and Stivers, J. P. 2008. Lakeside cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 years of Holocene population and environmental change. PLoS ONE 3.8: e2995. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002995.Google Scholar

Sidibé, S. 1980. Archéologie funéraire de l’ouest africain: sépultures et rites. Ph.D. thesis, Université de Paris (Sorbonne), Paris.Google Scholar

Silverman, H. and Small, D. B. (eds). 2002. The Space and Place of Death. Arlington: Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association Number 11.Google Scholar

Sindbaek, S. M. 2007. The small world of the Vikings: networks in early medieval communication and exchange. Norwegian Archaeological Review 40.1: 59–74.Google Scholar

Smith, S. T. 2003. Wretched Kush: Ethnic Identities and Boundaries in Egypt’s Nubian Empire. London, New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Souville, G. 1959. Principaux types de tumulus marocains. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique de France 56: 394–402.Google Scholar

Stark, M. T. 1999. Social dimensions of technical choice in Kalinga ceramic traditions. In Chilton, E. (ed.), Material Meanings: Critical Approaches to Interpreting Material Culture, Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 24–43.Google Scholar

Stark, M. T. 2006. Glaze ware technology, the social lives of pots, and communities of practice and in the Late Prehistoric Southwest. In Habicht–Mauche, J., Eckert, S. and Huntley, D. (eds), The Social Life of Pots: Glaze Wares and Cultural Transformation in the Late Pre-contact Southwest, Tucson: University of Arizona, 17–33.Google Scholar

Stark, M. T., Bowser, B. J. and Horne, L. 2008. Why breaking down boundaries matters for archaeological research on cultural transmission: an introduction. In Stark, M., Bowser, B. J. and Horne, L. (eds), Cultural Transmission and Material Culture: Breaking Down Boundaries, Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1–16.Google Scholar

Stirling, L., Mattingly, D. J. and Ben Lazreg, N. (eds). 2001. Leptiminus (Lamta): Report no. 2, The East Baths, Cemeteries, Kilns, Venus Mosaic, Site Museum and Other Studies. Portsmouth, RI: JRA Suppl. Series.Google Scholar

Stone, D. L. 2007a. Monuments on the margins: interpreting the Protohistoric rock–cut tombs (Haouanet) of North Africa. In Stone and Stirling 2007: 43–74.Google Scholar

Stone, D. L. 2007b. Burial, identity, and local culture in North Africa. In Van Dommelen, P. and Terrenato, N. (eds), Articulating Local Cultures: Power and Identity under the Expanding Roman Republic, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 63, 126–44.Google Scholar

Stone, D. L. 2016. Burial mounds and state formation in North Arica: a volumetric and energetic approach. In Mugnai et al. 2016: 39–51.Google Scholar

Stone, D. L. and Stirling, L. (eds). 2007. Mortuary Landscapes of North Africa. Toronto: University of Toronto.Google Scholar

Stone, D. L., Mattingly, D. J. and Ben Lazreg, N. (eds). 2011. Leptiminus (Lamta): A Roman Port City in Tunisia, Report no. 3, the Urban Survey. Portsmouth, RI: JRA Suppl. Series.Google Scholar

Tanda, G., Ghaki, M. and Cicilloni, R. (eds). 2009. Storia dei paesaggi preistorici e protostorici nell’alto tell tunisino. Missioni 2002–2003. Cagliari: Edizioni AV.Google Scholar

Tarlow, S. and Nilsson Stutz, L. 2013. The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Death and Burial. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Thiry, J. 1995. Le Sahara libyen dans l’Afrique du nord médiéval. Leuven: Peeters.Google Scholar

Thomas, J. 2013. Monumental architecture in sub-Saharan Africa: a European perspective. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 48.2: 315–22.Google Scholar

Thorn, J. C. 2005. The Necropolis of Cyrene: Two Hundred Years of Exploration. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.Google Scholar

Trigger, B. G. 1997. A History of Archaeological Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Trousset, P. (ed.). 1995. Monuments funéraires, institutions autochtones en Afrique du nord antique et médiévale. Actes du VIe colloque international sur l’histoire et l’archéologie de l’Afrique du Nord (Paris), Paris: Edition du CTHS.Google Scholar

Ucko, P. 1969. Ethnography and archaeological interpretation of funerary remains. World Archaeology 1.2: 262–80Google Scholar

Ucko, P. J. and Layton, R. 1999. The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape: Shaping Your Landscape. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Usai, D., Salvatori, S., Iacumin, P., Di Matteo, A., Jakob, T. and Zerboni, A. 2010. Excavating a pre-Mesolithic cemetery in Central Sudan. Antiquity 84.323 Project Gallery: https://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/usai323/.Google Scholar

Versluys, M. J. 2014. Understanding objects in motion. An archaeological dialogue on Romanization. [and responses]. Archaeological Dialogues 21.1: 1–64.Google Scholar

Voss, B. 2008. Domesticating imperialism: sexual politics and the archaeology of empire. American Anthropologist 110.2: 191–203.Google Scholar

Wallace-Hadrill, A. 2008. Rome’s Cultural Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Wengrow, D., Dee, M., Foster, S., Stevenson, A. and Bronk Ramsey, C. 2014. Cultural convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley: a prehistoric perspective on Egypt’s place in Africa. Antiquity 88.339: 95–111.Google Scholar

Wendorf, F. and Schild, R. (eds). 2001. Holocene Settlements of the Egyptian Sahara, vol. 1, The Archaeology of Nabta Playa. New York: Kluwer Academic, Plenum.Google Scholar

Whitley, J. 2002. Too many ancestors. Antiquity 76: 119–26.Google Scholar

Williams, H. 2003. Archaeologies of Remembrance: Death and Memory in Past Societies. New York, London: Kluwer Academic.Google Scholar

Williams, H. 2006. Death and Memory in Early Medieval Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Witcher, R. 2000. Globalisation and Roman imperialism: perspectives on identities in Roman Italy. In Herring, E. and Lomas, K. (eds), The Emergence of State Identities in Italy in the First Millennium BC. London: Accordia Research Institute, University of London, 213–25.Google Scholar

Woolf, G. 1997. Becoming Roman: The Origin of Provincial Civilisation in Gaul. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Wynne-Jones, S. 2013. Material culture, space and identity. In Mitchell and Lane 2013: 177–88.Google Scholar

Zaïnabi, A. T. (ed.). 2004. Trésors et merveilles de la vallée du Drâa. Zagora: Ed Marsam.Google Scholar