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6 A. Barros and M. Thomas, above note 4, pp. 8–9.

7 Henceforth, this article will refer to the Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge (published between 1869 and 1918) as the Bulletin. It will refer to the International Review of the Red Cross (or the Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, published from 1919 to the present) as the Review. All quotations from French-language articles have been translated by the author.

8 For an overview of these colonial conflicts, see Smith, Iain R. and Stucki, Andreas, “The Colonial Development of Concentration Camps 1868–1902”, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, Vol. 39, No. 3, 2011Google Scholar. For an overview of the US strategies in the Philippines, see Linn, Brian McAllister, The US Army and Counter-Insurgency in the Philippine War 1899–1902, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC, 1989Google Scholar. For a recent and detailed history of British concentration camps and the humanitarian and coercive ideas that underpinned them, see Forth, Aidan, Barbed-Wire Imperialism: Britain's Empire of Camps, 1876–1903, University of California Press, Oakland, CA, 2017CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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10 See, for instance, the report by Frederic Ferrière on the South African War: Ferrière, Frederic, “Pertes de l'armée anglaise dans le sud de l'Afrique et ressources sanitaires”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 32, No. 126, 1901Google Scholar.

11 See for instance, “La charité dans les guerres civiles”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 1, No. 4, 1870Google Scholar. For Armenia, see “Le Comité de Constantinople et les massacres en Arméniens”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 40, No. 159, 1909Google Scholar. For the appeals for Macedonia, see “Appel en faveur des victimes de l'insurrection macédonienne”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 35, No. 137, 1904Google Scholar.

12 “Les Prisonniers de Guerre aux Philippines”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 30, No. 118, 1899, p. 90Google Scholar.

13 Schulz, Matthias, “Dilemmas of ‘Geneva’ Humanitarian Internationalism: The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Red Cross Movement, 1863–1918”, in Paulmann, Johannes (ed.), Dilemmas of Humanitarian Aid in the Twentieth Century, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016Google Scholar.

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15 Ibid., pp. 992–993.

16 A. Barros and M. Thomas, above note 4, pp. 8–9; Hull, Isabel, A Scrap of Paper: Breaking and Making International Law during the Great War, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 2014, pp. 88–94Google Scholar.

17 Horne, John (ed.), State, Society, and Mobilization in Europe during the First World War, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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19 For one case study of this dynamic of the war, see Nicoletta Gullace's study of wartime communities in Britain, which showed how nationality and ethnicity supplanted pre-war liberal attitudes about immigration: Gullace, Nicoletta, “Friends, Aliens, and Enemies: Fictive Communities and the Lusitania Riots of 1915”, Journal of Social History, Vol. 39, No. 2, 2005CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Note that the use of the term “genocide” reflects the majority of current historical interpretations of the Ottoman State's killing of Armenians, although contemporary publications tended to refer to the “massacre of” or “atrocities against” Armenians. The term “genocide” was itself coined in Raphael Lemkin's 1944 study Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. See Watenpaugh, Keith, Bread From Stones: The Middle East and the Making of Modern Humanitarianism, University of California Press, Oakland, CA, 2015, pp. 76–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 For an examination of the respective legality of German and British actions against civilians according to contemporary international law, see I. Hull, above note 16, pp. 317–332. On the Armenian genocide, see Bloxham, Donald, The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 “La conduite de la guerre en Belgique”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 47, No. 186, 1916Google Scholar.

23 Horne, John and Kramer, Alan, German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 2001Google Scholar; I. Hull, above note 16, pp. 51–57.

24 For more on the various categories of civilian prisoners during the war, and the ICRC's response, see Stibbe, Matthew, “The Internment of Civilians by Belligerent States during the First World War and the Response of the International Committee of the Red Cross”, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 41, No. 1, 2006CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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26 See, for instance, “Les internés civils en Hongrie”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 46, No. 183, 1915Google Scholar; “Rapports de MM. Ed. Naville et J. Martin sur leur voyage en Angleterre; MM. Blanchod et Speiser, Vernet et de Muralt, Schazmann et Cramer sur leurs voyages au Nord de l'Afrique, Maroc, Tunlsie, Algérie; de MM. Thormeyer et Ferrière sur leur voyage en Russie”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 47, No. 186, 1916Google Scholar.

27 The ICRC's reports, however, were mainly confined to the larger civilian internment camps; gaining access to smaller battalions of forced labourers proved harder to achieve, meaning that the abuses against these prisoners received less international attention.

28 “Les Civils Rapport présenté par M. le Dr Ferrière à la Conférence de Croix-Rouges neutres à Genève”, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 48, No. 192, 1917, pp. 374–376Google Scholar.

29 Cabanes, Bruno, The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism, 1918–1924, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2013, p. 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 Quoted in Hutchinson, John, Champions of Charity: War and the Rise of the Red Cross, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, 1996, p. 604Google Scholar.

31 For the ICRC's leadership role in coordinating relief for Soviet Russia, see “La famine en Russie soviétique”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 3, No. 32, 1921Google Scholar; B. Cabanes, above note 29, pp. 191–194. For the organization's work for civilian refugees in Greece, see Rodogno, Davide, “The American Red Cross and the International Committee of the Red Cross’ Humanitarian Politics and Policies in Asia Minor and Greece (1922–1923)”, First World War Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2014CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The ICRC delegate in the Near East, Comte de Chabannes la Palice, also helped coordinate material relief for Armenian refugees: see “Les actions de secours en faveur des Arméniens!”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 2, No. 15, 1920Google Scholar.

32 M. Schulz, above note 13, pp. 60–61; J. Hutchinson, above note 30.

33 Herrmann, Irène, “Décrypter la concurrence humanitaire: Le conflit entre Croix-Rouge(s) après 1918”, Relations Internationales, No. 151, 2012, p. 22CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also Piana, Francesca, “Photography, Cinema, and the Quest for Influence: The International Committee of the Red Cross in the Wake of the First World War”, in Fehrenbach, Heide and Rodogno, Davide (eds), Humanitarian Photography: A History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2015Google Scholar.

34 “Résolutions et vœux de la Xme Conférence internationale de la Croix-Rouge”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 3, No. 28, 1921, p. 336Google Scholar.

35 Ibid.

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37 For recent works on interwar internationalism, see Gorman, Daniel, The Emergence of International Society in the 1920s, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Clavin, Patricia and Sluga, Glenda (eds), Internationalisms: A Twentieth Century History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2016Google Scholar.

38 The use of quote marks around the term “expert” throughout this article reflects the fact that humanitarian organizations and individuals often used somewhat tenuous definitions of their “expertise” or experience to justify their control of humanitarian operations, thus maintaining this control in the face of potential opposition from other humanitarian organizations, governments or recipients.

39 See Article 5 and the full Washington Treaty at the ICRC Treaties, States Parties and Commentaries Database, available at: https://tinyurl.com/yxmjcs2u (all internet references were accessed in March 2019).

40 On the non-ratification of the Washington Treaty's article on “noxious gasses”, see Schindler, Dietrich and Toman, Jiří, The Laws of Armed Conflicts: A Collection of Conventions, Resolutions and Other Documents, 3rd ed., Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 1988, p. 113Google Scholar.

41 For another author's assessment of the successes and limits of the Geneva Protocol, see Andrew Webster, “The League of Nations, Disarmament and Internationalism”, in P. Clavin and G. Sluga (eds), above note 37, pp. 159–160.

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44 L. Cramer and H. Micheli, above note 42, p. 692.

45 de Drachenfels, K., “La Croix-Rouge et la guerre chimique”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 9, No. 107, 1927, pp. 817–818Google Scholar.

46 Ibid., pp. 818–819.

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50 Sieur, above note 47, p. 350.

51 L. Cramer and H. Micheli, above note 42, p. 693.

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53 See the circular letter distributed to National Societies, in “Letter, ICRC to M. Dronsart (Belgian Red Cross), 3 October 1927”, ICRC Archive (ICRCA), CR159/120.

54 K. de Drachenfels, above note 45, pp. 812–813.

55 L. Cramer, above note 48, p. 109.

56 Ibid., pp. 100–101.

57 See for example, “Protection des populations civiles contre la guerre chimique”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 10, No. 114, 1928Google Scholar; Demolis, L., “A propos des Commissions mixtes nationales”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 10, No. 118, 1928Google Scholar; “Commissions mixtes nationales pour la protection des populations civiles contre la guerre chimique”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 12, No. 141, 1930Google Scholar; “Commissions mixtes nationales pour la protection des populations civiles contre la guerre aéro-chimique Commission internationale des experts”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 13, No. 156, 1931Google Scholar.

58 See, for instance, Hanslian, Rudolf, “L'appareil de protection contre les gaz à l'usage de la population civile”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 11, No. 126, 1929Google Scholar; Wagner, Anton, “La fabrication, le depot et l'entretien des masques contre les gaz et des vetements de protection”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 11, No. 126, 1929Google Scholar; Demolis, L., “Le masque de protection contre l'oxyde de carbone”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 12, No. 144, 1930Google Scholar.

59 See for instance, “Défense aérienne et protection des civils”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 14, No. 160, 1932Google Scholar.

60 See, for instance, Demolis, L., “Une bibliographie de la guerre chimique: Publication de la Croix-Rouge espagnole”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 13, No. 152, 1931Google Scholar.

61 Sieur, above note 47, p. 349.

62 L. Cramer and H. Micheli, above note 42, p. 693.

63 On the importance of moral disarmament in interwar internationalism, see Andrew Barros, “Turn Everyone into a Civilian: René Cassin and the UNESCO Project, 1919–1945”, in A. Barros and M. Thomas (eds), above note 4.

64 L. Cramer and H. Micheli, above note 42, p. 689.

65 Sieur, above note 47, p. 357.

66 See such concerns in the 1932 British draft aeronautical disarmament proposal, as outlined in Andrew Barros, “The Problems of Opening Pandora's Box: Strategic Bombing and the Civil–Military Divide, 1916–1939”, in A. Barros and M. Thomas (eds), above note 4, pp. 169–170.

67 For Germany, see the exercises carried out before and after the birth of the Third Reich: “Défense aérienne”, above note 59; Demolis, L., “Les manœuvres aériennes et la protection des populations civiles”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 17, No. 196, 1935Google Scholar. For Japan, see Demolis, L., “Exercices de protection de la population civile contre l'aérochimie effectués au Japon”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 10, No. 120, 1928Google Scholar. For Britain and France, see Demolis, L., “Les manœuvres aériennes et la défense des populations civiles”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 16, No. 188, 1934Google Scholar. For Norway, see “Exercices de protection aérienne en Norvège”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 14, No. 166, 1932Google Scholar.

68 Brown, Sidney H., “La protection de la population civile contre les dangers de la guerre aéro-chimique par des instruments diplomatiques”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 13, No. 153, 1931, p. 702Google Scholar.

69 Ibid., pp. 702–703.

70 “Commission internationale d'experts pour la protection des populations civiles contre la guerre chimique. IIe Session — Rome, 22–27 avril 1929. Résolutions”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 11, No. 125, 1929Google Scholar.

71 For the proceedings of this meeting, see “Commission internationale d'experts pour la protection juridique des populations civiles contre les dangers de la guerre aero-chimique. IIeme séance, mardi Ier decembre 1931”, ICRCA, CR159j.

72 S. H. Brown, above note 68.

73 “Résolutions et vœux adoptés par la XVe Conférence Internationale de la Croix-Rouge Tokio, 20–29 octobre 1934”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 16, No. 191, 1934, p. 898Google Scholar.

74 “Projet l'appel a la conference de desarmament”, ICRCA, CR159j.

75 The WDC sought to reach major agreements on arms limitations, and while delegates from national governments agreed on the necessity of reducing arms, they failed to agree on the precise mechanisms for achieving this. The withdrawal of Nazi Germany from the conference, according to Zara Steiner, marked “the end of the inter-war movement to disarm”: see Steiner, Zara, The Lights that Failed: European International History, 1919–1933, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005, p. 796CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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77 For just a sample of the many articles devoted to “civil defence”, see “La défense passive en Italie”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 16, No. 192, 1934Google Scholar; “La défense passive en France”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 17, No. 194, 1935Google Scholar; “La défense passive en Allemagne”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 17, No. 199, 1935Google Scholar.

78 H. Zangger, above note 76, p. 792.

79 See, for instance, “Résolutions et vœux adoptés par la XVe Conférence Internationale de la Croix-Rouge Tokio, 20–29 octobre 1934”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 16, No. 191, 1934, p. 898Google Scholar.

80 D. Palmieri, above note 14, pp. 994–995.

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82 “Records of the Nineteenth Ordinary Session of the Assembly”, p. 14, LNA, R424/30988/36395.

83 “Appel concernant la protection de la population civile contre les bombardements aériens”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 22, No. 256, 1940Google Scholar.

84 The most comprehensive account of the strategic bombing campaign during the Second World War is Overy, Richard, The Bombing War: Europe 1939–1945, Allen Lane, London, 2013Google Scholar. See also “Interview with Richard Overy”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 900, 2015Google Scholar.

85 J.-L. Blondel, above note 5, p. 464.

86 The original “realist” critique of interwar internationalism as “utopian” comes from the British civil servant and historian E. H. Carr's work: see Carr, E. H., The Twenty Years’ Crisis: 1919–1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations, Macmillan, London, 1939Google Scholar.

87 D. Palmieri, above note 14.

88 “Résolutions et vœux adoptés par la XVIe Conférence internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Londres 20–25 juin 1938”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 20, No. 235, 1938, p. 637Google Scholar.

89 Pictet, Jean, “La protection juridique de la population civile en temps de guerre”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 21, No. 244, 1939Google Scholar.

90 Ibid., pp. 283–286.

91 Ibid., p.273.

92 Pictet, Jean, “La protection juridique de la population civile en temps de guerre”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 21, No. 246, 1939Google Scholar.

93 Ibid., pp. 468–469.

94 Ibid., p. 469.

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96 J. Pictet, above note 89, p. 268.

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102 R. Heinsch, above note 95, p. 31.

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106 Haccius, Rodolphe, “L’œuvre de la Croix-Rouge espagnole au Maroc”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 8, No. 93, 1926, pp. 663–664Google Scholar. The following year, the Review published news of the commemorative postage stamps that the Spanish government issued to celebrate the Spanish Red Cross's contribution to the conflict, but again, it made no mention of civilian casualties during the war. See Wexel, Florian, “Timbres de Croix-Rouge”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 9, No. 97, 1927Google Scholar.

107 “Mission d'enquete en Anatolie (12–22 mai 1921)”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 3, No. 31, 1921, p. 723Google Scholar.

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111 D. Palmieri, above note 14, pp. 995–996.

112 “Secours aux réfugiés grecs”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 4, No. 47, 1922, p. 956Google Scholar. See also a follow-up report on the sexual exploitation of these refugees, in “Traite des femmes et des enfants parmi les réfugiés d'Asie mineure”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 5, No. 54, 1923Google Scholar.

113 On contemporary IHL and sexual violence, see Gaggioli, Gloria, “Sexual violence in Armed Conflicts: A Violation of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 96, No. 894, 2014, pp. 511–513CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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115 On the ICRC's response to these two conflicts, see Forsyth, David, The Humanitarians: The International Committee of the Red Cross, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, pp. 39–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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121 Demolis, L., “Les armements modernes et la protection des populations civiles”, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Vol. 21, No. 245, 1939, p. 403Google Scholar.

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126 A. Wenger and S. J. A. Mason, above note 3.

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129 See, for example, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, World Disasters Report: Focus on Local Actors, the Key to Humanitarian Effectiveness, Geneva, 2015Google Scholar, available at: http://ifrc-media.org/interactive/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/1293600-World-Disasters-Report-2015_en.pdf.

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133 See, for example, “Life in a War-Torn City: Residents of Aleppo Tell Their Stories”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 98, No. 901, 2016Google Scholar.