Understanding the generation of mechanical stress in drying, particle-laden films is important for a wide range of industrial processes. One way to study these stresses is through the cantilever experiment, whereby a thin film is deposited onto the surface of a thin plate that is clamped at one end to a wall. The stresses that are generated in the film during drying are transmitted to the plate and drive bending. Mathematical modelling enables the film stress to be inferred from measurements of the plate deflection. The aim of this paper is to present simplified models of the cantilever experiment that have been derived from the time-dependent equations of continuum mechanics using asymptotic methods. The film is described using nonlinear poroelasticity and the plate using nonlinear elasticity. In contrast to Stoney-like formulae, the simplified models account for films with non-uniform thickness and stress. The film model reduces to a single differential equation that can be solved independently of the plate equations. The plate model reduces to an extended form of the Föppl-von Kármán (FvK) equations that accounts for gradients in the longitudinal traction acting on the plate surface. Consistent boundary conditions for the FvK equations are derived by resolving the Saint-Venant boundary layers at the free edges of the plate. The asymptotically reduced models are in excellent agreement with finite element solutions of the full governing equations. As the Péclet number increases, the time evolution of the plate deflection changes from $t$ to $t^{1/2}$ , in agreement with experiments.

We consider steady states with mass constraint of the fourth-order thin-film equation with van der Waals force in a bounded domain which leads to a singular elliptic equation for the thickness with an unknown pressure term. By studying second-order nonlinear ordinary differential equation,

\begin{equation*}h_{rr}+\frac{1}{r}h_{r}=\frac{1}{\alpha}h^{-\alpha}-p\end{equation*}

Electron probe microanalysis is a nondestructive technique widely used to determine the elemental composition of bulk samples. This was extended to layered specimens, with the development of appropriate software. The traditional quantification method requires the use of matrix correction procedures based upon models of the ionization depth distribution, the so-called ϕ(ρz) distribution. Most of these models have led to commercial quantification programs but only few of them allow the quantification of layered specimens. Therefore, we developed BadgerFilm, a free open-source thin film program available to the general public. This program implements a documented ϕ(ρz) model as well as algorithms to calculate fluorescence in bulk and thin film samples. Part 1 of the present work aims at describing the operation of the implemented ϕ(ρz) distribution model and validating its implementation against experimental measurements and Monte Carlo simulations on bulk samples. The program has the ability to predict absolute X-ray intensities that can be directly compared to Monte Carlo simulations. We demonstrate that the implemented model works very well for bulk materials. And as will be shown in Part 2, BadgerFilm predictions for thin film specimens are also shown to be in good agreements with experimental and Monte Carlo results.

Since the 1960s, thicknesses and compositions of thin-film specimens have been determined by using the nondestructive technique of electron probe microanalysis. This approach, refined in the 1990s, is based upon models of the ionization depth distribution, the so-called ϕ(ρz) distribution, and is capable of analyzing layered specimens. Most of these quantification models have led to commercial programs. However, these programs may have possible limitations: some may not be directly compatible with modern computers, they often are “black boxes” making it difficult to assess the reliability of the results, and they are sometimes expensive enough to restrain many labs from purchasing them. We present a user-friendly, free, open-source program, BadgerFilm, implementing a documented ϕ(ρz) model and algorithms allowing the quantification of stratified samples. The program has the ability to calculate absolute X-ray intensities that can be directly compared with Monte Carlo simulations. We give a detailed explanation for the operation of the employed ϕ(ρz) model in thin films. A wide range of detailed Monte Carlo simulations and experimental data have been used to evaluate and validate the accuracy of the implemented algorithms. BadgerFilm demonstrated excellent quantification results for the films and in many cases for the substrates.

Austenitic stainless steel is used in several industrial branches due to its mechanical and thermal properties, and to its good corrosion resistance. With low cost and biocompatibility, it is used to manufacture prostheses and devices for bone fixation. However, direct contact with body fluids may cause corrosion. Thin films of FeAlCr intermetallic alloy can be used to increase service life of prostheses and avoid replacement surgeries. The aim of this work was to cover the austenitic stainless steel to study the effect of target–substrate distance on the film characteristics. Coatings were performed using the magnetron sputtering technique with the substrate positioned at different distances from the target. The influence on film thickness, morphology, roughness, and adhesion to the substrate was investigated. The thin films of FeAlCr (160 nm thick deposited at 100 mm far from the substrate) were formed by smaller particles (11.2 nm long), densely packed (551,000 particles/mm2), with flat and regular appearance, and greater adherence to the substrate.

Thin films of platinum deposited by physical vapor deposition (PVD) processes such as evaporation and sputtering are used in many academic and industrial settings, for example to provide metallization when tolerance to corrosive thermal cycling is desired, or in electrocatalysis research. In this review, various practical considerations for platinum (Pt) metallization on both Si and SiO2 are placed in context with a comprehensive data review of diffusion measurements. The relevance of diffusion phenomena to the development of microstructure during deposition as well as the effect of microstructure on the properties of deposited films are discussed with respect to the Pt–Si system. Since Pt and Si readily form silicides, diffusion barriers are essential components of Pt metallization on Si, and various failure modes for diffusion barriers between Pt and Si are clarified with images obtained by electron microscopy. Adhesion layers for Pt films deposited on SiO2 are also considered.

Lead-free perovskite layers may provide a good alternative to the commonly used lead-halide-based perovskite absorber layers in photovoltaics. Energy level alignment of the active semiconductor with contact layers is a key factor in device performance. Kelvin probe force microscopy was used during vapor deposition of C60 onto formamidinium tin iodide to investigate contact formation with detailed local resolution of these materials that are significant for photovoltaic cells. Significant differences dependent on the growth rate of C60 were detected. Sufficiently high deposition rates were essential to reach compact C60 films needed for good contact. A space charge layer larger than 90 nm within the C60 layer was established without indication of interfacial dipoles. The present analysis gives a clear indication of a well-functioning contact of fullerenes to formamidinium tin iodide that is suitable for the use in photovoltaic devices provided that thin compact fullerene films are formed.

A careful engineering of the central metal coordination spheres provides adducts with excellent properties for application as precursors in vapor phase and solution processes. The family of precursors under study concerns the fluorinated metal-organic β-diketonates of alkaline, alkaline-earth and rare-earth metals adducted with a polyether, with general formula M(hfa)n·L (M = Ca, Na, Y, Yb, Er, Tm; Hhfa = 1,1,1,5,5,5 hexafluoroacetylacetone, L = diglyme or tetraglyme). Mass transport properties, such as volatility and thermal stability, of these adducts have been deeply analyzed through thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetric measurements. These properties are rationalized in relation to the metal coordination sphere in the precursors and their applications. In particular, the precursors under focus have been applied to metal organic chemical vapor deposition and a combined sol–gel/spin-coating approach. Both methods allow us to obtain selectively and reproducibly CaF2 and NaYF4 phases with several combinations of lanthanide doping ions, using a proper mixture of fluorinated precursors. A careful optimization of both synthetic strategies is the key point for the production of different lanthanide-doped binary and multicomponent fluoride films, i.e., CaF2:Yb3+,Er3+; CaF2:Yb3+,Tm3+; CaF2:Yb3+,Er3+,Tm3+ and NaYF4:Yb3+,Er3+; NaYF4:Yb3+,Tm3+, with suitable morphologies, compositions and crystalline structures. The films show very promising upconversion properties, thus pointing to their appealing applications in photovoltaic systems and white light emission devices.

Hydrogen lithography has been used to template phosphine-based surface chemistry to fabricate atomic-scale devices, a process we abbreviate as atomic precision advanced manufacturing (APAM). Here, we use mid-infrared variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry (IR-VASE) to characterize single-nanometer thickness phosphorus dopant layers (δ-layers) in silicon made using APAM compatible processes. A large Drude response is directly attributable to the δ-layer and can be used for nondestructive monitoring of the condition of the APAM layer when integrating additional processing steps. The carrier density and mobility extracted from our room temperature IR-VASE measurements are consistent with cryogenic magneto-transport measurements, showing that APAM δ-layers function at room temperature. Finally, the permittivity extracted from these measurements shows that the doping in the APAM δ-layers is so large that their low-frequency in-plane response is reminiscent of a silicide. However, there is no indication of a plasma resonance, likely due to reduced dimensionality and/or low scattering lifetime.

The role of negative substrate bias voltage in influencing the microstructural evolution, along with the mechanical and scratch behavior of magnetron sputtered Ni–Zr alloyed thin films, has been investigated. The films have been deposited on a Si(100) substrate by direct current (DC) magnetron co-sputtering of high-purity elemental Ni and Zr targets, using an optimized target power in an argon atmosphere at room temperature by altering the negative substrate bias voltage (0 to −80 V). The increase in negative substrate bias voltages leads to an increase in Zr content of the investigated films. The characterization techniques such as grazing incidence X-ray diffraction and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy studies confirm that an increase in the negative substrate bias voltage leads to an increase in the volume fractions of amorphous phase and Ni3Zr, but a decrease in the deposition rate, surface roughness, and average grain sizes. Hardness and Young's modulus obtained by nanoindentation, along with the coefficient of friction obtained from nano-scratch experiments, appear to be related to the relative volume fractions of both nanocrystalline and the amorphous phase. Furthermore, increase in Ni3Zr volume fraction with decrease in grain size within the crystalline part of the film, with increase in substrate bias used during deposition may have contributed to both increase in both hardness and scratch resistance.

Elevated temperature co-sputtering of immiscible elements results in a variety of self-organized morphologies due to phase separation. Cu–Ta is used as a model system to understand the evolution of phase-separated microstructural morphologies by co-sputtering thin films with nominal 50–50 at.% composition at four temperatures: 25, 400, 600, and 800 °C. Scanning/transmission electron microscopy of the film cross sections showed the microstructure morphology varied from nanocrystalline Cu–Ta at 25 °C to a wavy ribbon-like structure at 400 °C, to Cu-rich agglomerates surrounded by Ta-rich veins at 600 and 800 °C. In the agglomerate-vein morphology, microstructural features were present on two length scales, from a few nanometers to a few tens of nanometers, thus making the structures hierarchical. On the nanoscale, the Cu-rich agglomerates contained Ta precipitates, whereas the Ta-rich veins had embedded Cu nanocrystals. The various microstructures can be attributed to the highly disparate constituent element interdiffusion at the deposition temperatures with the Cu having orders of magnitude higher mobility than Ta at the deposition temperatures. This study of processing–microstructure relationship will be useful in guiding the design of hierarchical multiphase microstructures in binary or multicomponent thin films with tailored mechanical properties.

The measurement of thin film mechanical properties free from substrate influence remains one of the outstanding challenges in nanomechanics. Here, a technique based on indentation of a supported film with a flat punch whose diameter is many times the initial film thickness is introduced. This geometry generates a state of confined uniaxial strain for material beneath the punch, allowing direct access to intrinsic stress versus strain response. For simple elastic–plastic materials, this enables material parameters such as elastic modulus, bulk modulus, Poisson's ratio, and yield stress to be simultaneously determined from a single loading curve. The phenomenon of confined plastic yield has not been previously observed in thin films or homogeneous materials, which we demonstrate here for 170 -470 nm thick polystyrene (PS), polymethyl-methacrylate (PMMA) and amorphous Selenium films on silicon. As well as performing full elastic -plastic parameter extraction for these materials at room temperature, we used the technique to study the variation of yield stress in PS to temperatures above the nominal glass transition of 100 °C.

This article reports findings when using a molybdenum–tungsten (MoW) interlayer for diamond thin film deposition on steel substrates. The main focus was on the postdeposition stress within the diamond films and its impact on the coating's tribological properties. The effect of MoW interlayer thickness and the effect of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process temperature have been investigated. Nanocrystalline diamond films were deposited on steel substrates with MoW interlayers (thickness of 1.1, 4.5, and 8.3 μm) at two different deposition temperatures (650 and 875 °C). It was found that when depositing good quality diamond films on steel substrates, increasing interlayer thickness and decreasing CVD process temperature have to be jointly considered to obtain the optimal result. The diamond-coated steel substrates with the 8.3 μm interlayer deposited at the lower CVD processing temperature exhibited the least residual stress combined with excellent mechanical properties.

In this study, the magnetic properties of Fe39.8Co19.92Mn20.52Cr14.77Si5 multi-principal element alloy in both bulk and thin films were studied. X-ray diffraction measurements show coexisting face centered cubic (FCC) and hexagonal close packed phases in the bulk and the 500 nm thin films, while only FCC phase is observed in the 65 nm thin film. A four orders of magnitude increase in the magnetic moment is observed for 65 nm thin film compared with the bulk sample. Evolution of magnetization as a function of temperature and applied magnetic field shows multiple magnetic transitions. A paramagnetic to spin glass transition is detected at TS ∼ 390 K for all samples. Further cooling results in a spin glass to ferromagnetic (FM) transition, and the transition temperature, TF, is dependent on the film thickness. Higher saturation magnetization and transition temperature observed for the thin film samples indicate the stabilization of FM ordering due to thickness confinement.

We show interlayer stacking shifts occur in transition metal dichalcogenides (TMD) bilayers due to the strain introduced during sample heating, and attributed to rippling of one layer relative to the other. The atomic structure of the interlayer stacking is studied using annular dark field scanning transmission electron microscopy with an in situ heating holder. Before heating, bilayers show uniform interlayer stacking of AA′ and AB. When heated, contrast change is seen and associated with interlayer stacking changes at the atomic scale due to ripples. When cooled down to room temperature, these contrast features disappear, confirming it is a reversible process that is not related to defects or vacancies. Because the bottom layer is attached to the in situ heating chip made from Si3N4 and the top layer is in contact with the underlying TMD layer with weak van der Waals interaction, the two layers experience different forces during thermal expansion.

The {100}-oriented (CaxSr1-x)Si2 thin films have been prepared by co-sputtering method at various deposition temperatures. Constituent phase of the films primarily depends on the deposition temperature and the composition x. Although CaSi2 films consisted of layered structure regardless of deposition temperature, the phase was changed by the deposition temperature: the majority phases of the film deposited at 600°C, 650°C and 700°C were 1T layered structure, 1T layered structure + 2H layered structure and 1T layered structure + 6R layered structure, respectively. When the (CaxSr1-x)Si2 films deposited at 700°C, the α-SrSi2-type phase was mainly confirmed below x = 0.17, which is the most stable phase of SrSi2. However, the main phase of all CaxSr1-xSi2 films deposited at 600°C changed to be 1T-type layered structure. Substitution with Ca below x = 0.50 in the film deposited at 600°C led to the decrease in the electrical resistivity compared with that of pure SrSi2.

To understand the potential impacts on both thermal performance and condensation risks of using low-e coatings in buildings, especially in the single-pane sector, in this work, parametric numerical analysis in winter is conducted. Three building glazing models, including the single-pane without low-e coatings (SNL), single-pane with exterior low-e coatings (SEL), and single-pane with interior low-e coatings (SIL), are selected and simulated through COMSOL over a range of outdoor temperature and indoor humidity. The temperature of the interior surface of windows, heat flux through windows, winter U-factor of center-of-glass will be obtained and compared. Additionally, a numerical code is developed in R to compute and plot the condensation temperatures of these three models upon the given indoor humidity levels and simulated surface temperatures. The comprehensive analysis of condensation risks on the glazing inner surface of the three models will be conducted.

This parametric simulation effort indicates an interesting feature for a single-pane window: while the SIL gives a substantially lower U than the SNL, it also corresponds to an increased condensation risk under certain limits of external temperature and indoor humidity levels. Upon the resultant condensation temperatures and thermal performance analysis, we can conclude the parameters of the windowpane property, coating emissivity and placement, local climate, and building interior thermal settings must be taken into account collectively when it comes to adding low-e coatings to single-pane windows.

The energy level alignment that occurs at the interfaces in planar-hetero structured perovskite photovoltaic devices strongly influences the charge transport across the interface, and thus plays a crucial role in overall device performance. To directly observe the energy level alignment requires pristine homogeneous surfaces that are free of contamination including adventitious carbon. Co-evaporation offers the ability to grow perovskite thin films in-situ, and the method involves thermally evaporating the perovskite precursors such as PbI2 and CH3NH3I. Early reports have shown that the perovskite film formation and stoichiometry are problematic at ultralow coverages. In particular, it was reported that there was excessive PbI2 and a deficiency in CH3NH3I. Using photoemission spectroscopy, we investigated the perovskite precursor PbI2 on gold and highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) surfaces. Results show that the nature of the surface and the deposition conditions can strongly influence the film formation. Excessive iodine observed in the initial evaporation stages appears to be substrate dependent, and this may influence the overall energy level alignment.

The study report on Vanadium dioxide thin films of about 100nm thickness deposited using pulsed laser deposition on Si (100). The novel phase change reported is attributed to the post-treatment of the films via ion implantation with 25 KeV C+ ion beam at varying particle fluence (1E15, 1E16, and 1E17 /cm2). At the initial fluence, the preferred phase is retained while amorphization and recrystallization of the film is observed as the fluence increase to 1E16 ions/cm2and 1E17 ions/cm2, respectively. The phase transition of the samples is observed to occur at a temperature below 320 K while stabilization of the low phase structure is observed for the middle fluence. Further increase restores the SMT behaviour/trend that occurred at elevated temperatures.

Recent studies have shown spray-pyrolysis is a low-cost, simple and efficient technique for deposition of metal oxide semiconductors (such as zinc oxide) as the active layer of thin-film transistors (TFTs). However, to allow the translation from laboratory scale to industry the reproducibility of such method needs to be evaluated. We present herein a representative study concerning the reproducibility and uniformity of spray-coated ZnO TFTs using several devices, from different production batches, following the same fabrication protocol. We demonstrate that it is possible to obtain transistors with high performance and reproducibility by controlling the most relevant deposition factors, corroborated by a low deviation rate (below 10%) from the characteristic TFT parameters (mobility in saturation, threshold voltage and on/off ratio), which is compatible to commonly available commercial electronic devices.