The chapter analyses existing regional cybersecurity treaties to highlight the differences in these treaties that reflect the divide between the state-oriented and market-oriented models of internet governance, and to find possible areas of convergence that may pave the way towards global co-operation. It also discusses the role and limitations of the private sector, including IT industries, technical experts, and civil societies, in cybersecurity governance. Realistic scenarios of future global cybersecurity governance would envision expanding and strengthening regional co-operation and co-operation between like-minded states. However, reaching a consensus on particular cybersecurity issues will not automatically result in effective cybersecurity governance. Fundamental differences in the levels of cyber-preparedness and the ability of states to combat cybercrimes will create a living space for cybercriminals and other malign actors to engage in illegal activities. Continuous efforts to support states with less cybercapacity, including through strengthening education, technical skills, and material resources should accompany any attempts to create cybersecurity governance norms.

We move now to more familiar terrain. Throughout the history of International Relations as a field, the state has been the primary security referent of concern. In this chapter – as in the previous one and the next two – I will start by clarifying the referent conceptually, then proceed to assess the kind and degree of value it has (if any), identify prominent threats to it, and discuss which of those threats are worthy of what level of investment in security.

As a species, we spend a great deal of time, energy, and money on security. The world’s military budgets alone totalled more than $1.9 trillion U.S. dollars in 2020, an average of 6.0 percent of government spending and 2.0 percent of Gross Domestic Product.1 The United States accounts for more than a third of the total all by itself and spends upward of $70 billion on foreign and military intelligence (a figure that excludes black budget expenditures).2 Add in spending on border controls, coast guards, and funding for national security–related research and development across a variety of fields, and it is clear that many countries invest very heavily indeed in protecting against foreign threats.