The small red brocket deer Mazama bororo is endemic to the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, a biome that has been greatly fragmented and altered by human activities. This elusive species is morphologically similar to the red brocket deer Mazama americana and the Brazilian dwarf brocket deer Mazama nana, and genetic typing is necessary for reliable identification. To determine the geographical range of M. bororo more accurately, we conducted non-invasive genetic sampling using scat detection dogs trained to locate deer faeces. We surveyed 46 protected areas located within the species’ potential distribution and collected a total of 555 scat samples in 30 of the protected areas. Using a polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism approach, we genotyped 497 scat samples (89%) and detected M. bororo in seven localities in three Brazilian states. The results support a range extension of the small red brocket deer to latitudes 23 and 28°S and longitudes 47 and 49°W. We show that the species’ distribution is associated with 37,517 km2 of the Ombrophilous Dense Forest in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, and this conclusion is supported by species distribution modelling. The small red brocket deer is the largest endemic species in Brazil and may have the smallest geographical distribution of any Neotropical deer species. This species occupies fragmented landscapes and is threatened by human encroachment, poaching, and predation by dogs, and based on our findings we recommend policy intervention for conservation planning of the Ombrophilous Dense Forest.

The global population of jaguars Panthera onca has decreased significantly since the beginning of the 20th century. Given the scarcity of demographic and biological information, estimating population parameters is critical for the design of conservation measures. The jaguar's elusive behaviour makes it impossible to estimate and monitor populations by direct observation. We propose a non-invasive genetic sampling approach and demonstrate its potential for large-scale monitoring. Sex identification was optimized for faecal samples of jaguars and other felids. We also optimized a set of 11 microsatellite markers for reliable identification of individuals. We estimated the effectiveness of faecal sample genotyping in two distinct Brazilian biomes: the Pantanal and the semi-arid Caatinga. Almost 90% of the samples that were molecularly identified as jaguar (n = 90) were successfully genotyped and were assigned to 30 individuals. Genetic diversity was generally high but was significantly lower in the Caatinga population. We show that non-invasive genetic sampling can be a reliable tool to study population parameters and to monitor the genetic status of jaguar populations in different habitats. It may also be useful for future surveys of jaguars that address ecological, behavioural and conservation issues, and could provide a baseline for non-invasive genetic studies of other wild felid populations.

Conservation plans may conflict when both predator and prey in the same ecological system are threatened species. In this study we present a problematic case of conflicting conservation policies involving the Arabian wolf Canis lupus arabs and two species of gazelles (Gazella gazella acaciae and Gazella dorcas), all of which are threatened in Israel. By studying genetic subdivision using faecal DNA we evaluated the policy of treating the Arabian wolves in the Negev Desert as two separate populations. We analysed 95 wolf faecal samples from 12 feeding sites c. 20 km apart. Network analysis and Bayesian clustering were used for separating populations. Mark–recapture design, rarefaction and an urn model were applied to estimate wolf population size. We found that wolves in the central and southern Negev cannot be genetically separated, and their density is similar in both regions. Our results provide a better baseline for a unified management of wolves in the Negev. We call for the consideration of other factors influencing gazelle population size before adopting drastic measures such as wolf removal.

The Critically Endangered Arabian leopard Panthera pardus nimr faces severe reduction in population size and is on the brink of extinction. This situation is, to a large extent, a result of human activity. The small populations of this subspecies are restricted to a few areas in the Arabian Peninsula, Israel and Jordan. Information required for conservation of this subspecies, including reliable population estimates and the range of individuals, is currently unavailable. To estimate population size and assign gender to individuals in the population in Israel we used molecular markers in leopard DNA extracted from scats collected in intensive surveys throughout the Judean Desert and the Negev Highlands. This non-invasive mode of sampling, combined with the availability of high-resolution markers (microsatellites) and sex-specific DNA-sequences, was successful in identifying both individuals and gender. The results indicated the existence of a male and two females in the Judean Desert, and four males and one female in the Negev Highlands. Although the non-invasive procedure we used may underestimate the leopard's true population size, continuous monitoring of population size and sex composition of this small population using scatology is a key component for the management of this species. These data, especially if used in conjunction with similar data from other countries within the subspecies' range, will assist in the establishment of conservation plans for the Arabian leopard.