In Section 1 of An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, Hume claims that those who deny the reality of morals are disingenuous. He notes that philosophy has had a history of disagreements about whether morals originate in reason or sentiment. Throughout his book, Hume applies an experimental method to find the “universal principles” from which morality is derived. Then, in Appendix 1, he argues for the origin of these principles in sentiment or taste, a product of “the human fabric.” Reason, Hume says, discovers objects “as they really stand in nature, without addition or diminution.” Taste “has a productive faculty, and gilding or staining all natural objects with the colours, borrowed from internal sentiment, raises, in a manner, a new creation.” How can the quest for universal principles find a satisfactory answer in taste, a “productive” faculty? How is the notion that morality is a “new creation” consistent with an insistence on the reality of moral distinctions? Are the deliverances of taste, which are prompts to virtue, also judgments that can be evaluated as true or false? This essay shows that, on a proper reading, the elements of Hume’s moral epistemology in the second Enquiry are largely consistent.

This chapter gives an overview of all sources written in Anatolian hieroglyphs, that is, seals and inscriptions. Whereas cuneiform was the strictly internal means of communication within the kingdom, the hieroglyphs were used whenever the population at large was addressed. Given the sociolinguistic situation hieroglyphic inscriptions were written in Luwian, not in Hittite.

I discuss Aristotle’s account of the psyche (soul) in book 1 chapter 13 of the Nicomachean Ethics, his further distinction between theoretical and practical thinking in Nicomachean Ethics VI 1, and the famous function argument of Nicomachean Ethics I 7. I also address Aristotle’s unclarity about how to characterize desire, and his skepticism about parts of the psyche in de Anima III 9. This leads to a brief discussion of Plato’s division of the psyche in Republic IV and the Phaedrus, and whether both Plato’s and Aristotle’s divisions lead to problems concerning the unity of motivation. This discussion begins to set the stage for my interpretation of Aristotelian prohairesis (often translated as “choice”), the characteristic motivation of the good person. As we shall see, the phenomenon of choice straddles different parts of the Aristotelian psyche in a way that Plato never envisaged in his own account of the psyche.

The chapter introduces core concepts to be explored throughout the book. The chapter begins by discussing the recent growth in public service motivation research and growth in related intellectual capital. In addition to a growth in research, more practical applications for examining public service values and motivations have emerged. The chapter subsequently addresses the continuing pressure being placed on traditional service systems. In the face of warnings about long-term mismanagement of human capital, governments around the world are under pressure. The chapter then outlines factors that tend to allow civil service systems to persist. Operating rules, which have rational origins as solutions to perceived problems, sensitize actors to values. The evolution of motivation is then discussed, with special attention towards New Public Management, contracting out, agentification, and high-powered incentives. Public service motivation is then proposed to be a foundation for reform. A comprehensive, coherent, evidence-based argument is outlined. The chapter concludes with a description of the organization of the book.

Human personality is the other main broad domain addressed within the general framework of individual differences. The chapter provides a brief description about the main approaches used in the study of human personality. Moreover, substantial questions addressed in this chapter include whether personality influences chess playing style, or whether chess player’s personality differs in some special way from that of other people uninvolved in chess. In addition, whether personality factors may interact in some way with cognitive abilities in chess players is another interesting and relatively novel topic. In contrast with intelligence, however, the body of research about the personality of chess players is rather scarce. Nevertheless, there have been some interesting findings in the latter years that are summarized within this chapter. The ending section of this chapter presents novel data about the interplay amongst personality, motivation, and emotional regulation in predicting chess skill.

This chapter discusses expatriate recruitment sources, methods, and the expatriates’ motivations to work abroad. Then it examines expatriate selection criteria, methods, and how expatriates are selected in practice. The chapter also presents the variety of expatriate preparation methods, discusses expatriate training effectiveness, and expatriate preparation in practice. It concludes by considering future avenues of research. Overall, in the area of selection and preparation for international assignments there is good material for researchers to build on and a growing understanding of the key issues. Nevertheless, there remains here a rich field for exciting research in the future.

A wide variety of events can function as reinforcers. The Premack principle provides a useful guide; activities that individuals engage in when given a free choice will probably be effective reinforcers. One factor is the delay between the response and reinforcer; we discount, or give less value, to rewards that are delayed. Effectiveness also depends on the schedule of reinforcement; partial reinforcement (reinforcing only some responses) produces greater persistence in extinction. Effectiveness also depends on how the reinforcer contrasts with past reinforcers—we value a reinforcer less if we are accustomed to more attractive reinforcers—and how long we have been deprived of it. The stimuli present during reinforcement are also important; we are more likely to repeat a response if we are in the same environment where we obtained it previously. Which elements of that environment will be important, though, can be difficult to predict, depending in part on attention and perceptual learning (with practice we can become better at distinguishing elements of a situation). The chapter ends with an application involving shaping—when a behavior is difficult to train, start by reinforcing the response closest to it, and then gradually reinforce closer approximations.

This chapter might be euphemistically called a summary of the book “in pictures,” as it includes all of the key graphics used throughout the book to represent the core ideas of MST (including summaries of goal content themes, different kinds of emotion patterns, and personal agency belief patterns), TSP (including representations of the TSP Theory of Motivation and Optimal Functioning and the TSP Theory of Life Meaning), and principles for motivating self and others. This chapter was designed to provide readers with a quick summary of the book’s contents and an easy way to recall key ideas related to the challenge of motivating self and others.

This chapter provides a nontechnical introduction to the components of human motivation (goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs) that capitalizes on the intuitive understandings that readers already have about motivation from their own everyday experience. This is done through thought questions that encompass motivation of both self and others. The concept of “motivation at its (human) best” – what we call Thriving with Social Purpose – is also introduced as an advance organizer for the chapters to follow.

The next step after getting a feel for what “personal goals” are and how they work is to understand the other two components of motivational patterns (emotions and personal agency beliefs) and how goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs operate as a “leadership team” in motivational headquarters. Learning how these components of human motivational patterns (always) work together to direct, organize, and regulate thought and action provides the conceptual foundation for constructing a theory of motivation and optimal functioning that can inform efforts to help people be more successful and experience enhanced levels of well-being and life meaning. This chapter also introduces the concept of equipoise – a system-wide requirement for optimal functioning – while also explaining how MST concepts can be applied to motivation at the level of human collectives (Group Motivational Systems Theory).

This chapter analyzes migration timing. It begins by showing that there is substantial variation in civilian migration timing. Then, it explains how civilians develop motivation and opportunity to migrate. Finally, the chapter ends by showing how civilians may combine migration and community support strategies.

This chapter describes the theoretical argument in detail. It starts by discussing relevant features of civil wars, as well as scope conditions for an analysis of the Syrian civil war. Then, it discusses how civilian behavior during conflict is influenced by threat perceptions. Survival strategies are responses to threat perceptions specifically. Violent experiences in particular drive threat perceptions. These experiences are particularly likely when civilians have social proximity to perpetrators of violence. After that, it reviews existing understandings of PTSD and PTG. To connect these psychological processes to behavior, the chapter then turns to narratives and narrative ruptures. Next, it addresses how people develop opportunity to act safely. Finally, it shows how motivation and opportunity combine in order to allow civilians to select specific survival strategies.

This chapter begins by showing why armed groups perceive threats when civilians support community members. As armed groups respond, they make civilians perceive community support as dangerous. Then, it explains how civilians develop the motivation and opportunity to share information. Afterwards, it analyzes how and why civilians select specific conversation partners, particularly strong social ties, co-ethnics, and people with similar ideological views. Next, it discusses how civilians use code words when sharing information. Civilians perceive protection from this strategy of sharing information, even though the code words that they choose are often very easy to decipher.

The Introduction provides an overview of the theoretical argument and discusses the importance of the book as a whole. It opens with motivation for the book. Then, it introduces the crucial concepts of threat perceptions and repertoires of survival strategies. It then introduces the main source of evidence for the book, interviews with Syrian refugees in Jordan and Turkey. After that, it provides an overview of the book's theoretical and policy implications. Finally, it provides a road map for the book.

This chapter concludes the book. First, it summarizes the argument. It then discusses lessons for civilian protection. Next, it shows how the book's argument could extend to other cases and survival strategies. After that, it discusses how the book's argument regarding violent threat could be extended to environmental threat, as well as combinations of violent and environmental threat. Finally, the chapter ends by laying out what an overarching framework could look like that would incorporate violent and environmental threat.

This chapter provides an overview of research factors and interventions that facilitate delaying gratification in academic settings. In learning settings, academic delay of gratification refers to students’ postponement of immediately available opportunities to satisfy impulses in favor of pursuing important academic rewards or goals that are temporally remote but ostensibly more valuable. The first section of this chapter provides a brief overview and the theoretical underpinnings of Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory and Zimmerman’s (2013) self-regulated learning model, with an emphasis on delay of gratification. The second section focuses on how school psychologists can help educators to put in place schoolwide processes that help make it easier for students to delay gratification. The third section describes interventions that can be implemented by school psychologists, teachers, and administrators to assist students who struggle with delaying gratification. The final section provides recommendations for facilitating delaying gratification in school environments and suggests future research.