Extraneous processing occurs when suboptimal instructional design causes learners to engage in cognitive processing irrelevant to the instructional goal. This chapter explores five principles for reducing extraneous processing in multimedia learning: coherence, signaling, redundancy, spatial contiguity, and temporal contiguity. The coherence principle is that people learn better when extraneous information is excluded from multimedia lessons. The signaling principle is that people learn better when cues are added to highlight the organization of the essential information. The redundancy principle is that people learn better when multimedia lessons include graphics and spoken text rather than graphics, spoken text, and printed text. The spatial contiguity principle is that people learn better when words and corresponding graphics are physically integrated rather than separated. The temporal contiguity principle is that people learn better when words and corresponding graphics are presented simultaneously rather than sequentially.

This chapter outlines the tight connections between multimedia learning and worked examples in that worked examples can make multimedia learning more effective, and applying instructional multimedia guidelines makes learning from worked examples more effective. The to-be-expected effect sizes when using worked examples are discussed, and the theoretical rationale of the worked-example effect is explained (e.g., example study replaces unproductive learning by problem-solving). In addition, a set of instructional guidelines for optimizing learning from worked examples is derived from findings on factors that moderate the worked-example effect, such as fading worked steps or including incorrectly worked examples. Furthermore, the theoretical implications of the general pattern of findings on worked examples are discussed (e.g., with respect to the role of generative learning or extraneous processing). Finally, important questions to be addressed in further research are proposed.

Multimedia learning is learning from words and pictures. The rationale for studying multimedia learning is that people can learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone. A goal of research on multimedia learning is to understand how to design multimedia learning environments that promote meaningful learning. The research base concerning multimedia learning is reflected in the 46 chapters of this Handbook, and includes 30 design principles that we have organized into three categories: principles based on reducing extraneous processing, principles based on managing essential processing, and principles based on fostering generative processing.

A visual display is a graphic representation of information communicated to learners. In this chapter, we review research-based principles for the design of visual displays. We begin by providing an overview of visual displays and presenting the case for visual displays in education. This chapter also describes a theoretical framework for understanding how people learn with visual displays and reviews research-based principles for designing visual displays to improve learning. Specifically, we identify three common forms of extraneous processing (induced via spatial distance, unimportant information, and referential confusion) and how to reduce them using research-based principles (spatial contiguity principle, coherence principle, and signaling principle). In addition, we discuss ways to promote generative processing and how different types of graphic organizers (sequence, hierarchy, matrix) can support different types of inferences (temporal, hierarchical, relational). We conclude with a discussion of future directions for research on visual displays.