The Introduction discusses paideia (culture of Greek intellectuals) and its relevance for fourth-century clergy by providing a background to the Cappadocian Fathers. The chapter defines the meaning of "classical masculinity" for this study and places its treatment of gender into the broader scholarship on late antiquity and Christianity. The chapter outlines key concepts such as aretē (manly virtue), agathos (superior person), and asceticism (self-denial), and introduces agōn (contest or struggle) as the concept around which the book is organized. It also directs the reader to consider the Second Sophistic as the antecedent to the fourth-century culture of epistolary exhibitions. The chapter explains the differences in the Cappadocians’ use of genre and the distinguishing features of epistolography and hagiographic biography. And the Introduction explores identity theory and its usefulness for investigating gender and Christianity.

The Epilogue identifies classical masculinity as reflected in depictions of late antique clothing,liturgy in Carolingian monasteries, and miniature illustrations in middle-Byzantine manuscripts. Fifth-century clergy wore specific apparel to signify manhood. Benedictine lectors (readers) were selected according to their virility of voice. And Byzantine artists set clergy face to face in manuscripts, in part a legacy of the agōn trope of reciprocal strength. These examples show that elements of classical masculinity continued to inform the Christian church in western Europe and Byzantium into the eleventh century. Such representations continued to evoke power and authority within the hierarchy of the church.Like fourth-century agōn rhetoric, these trappings of classical manhood provided a language of hierarchy for church leaders to integrate into a faith that lacked comparable platforms for displays of social and spiritual distinction.

Chapter 4 treats the Cappadocians’ hagiographic biographies in conjunction with their polemic against non-Trinitarian theologians.The chapter begins by outlining the background and teachings of Eunomius of Cyzicus (c. 335–c. 395), a longtime heterousian rival to the Cappadocians. The chapter analyzes the narratives about fourth-century Nicene bishop Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 298–372), Basil, and Macrina as hagiographies designed in part to contrast true (pro-Nicene) doctrine against the false philosophy of non-Trinitarians.These saints’ ascetic feats are recounted as spiritual ordeals fashioned as classical contests: in Athanasius, suffering multiple exiles because of standing up to false (heterousian) teachers; in Basil, countering threats to the Nicene faith by imperial officials; and in Macrina, enduring disease and death with unwavering resolve.In each case,Nyssen or Nazianzen emphasize that character is formed out of struggle; and that voice and speech (as a metaphor for doctrine) have been purified and validated in pro-Nicene theologians, but are corrupted and disingenuous in the untested charlatans they oppose.

Chapter 1 treats the epistolary discourse of the Cappadocians as a simulation of agōn (contest) and as a locus for conspicuous display of aretē (manly virtue). It demonstrates that the Cappadocians staged literary exchanges as athletic and military ventures, enabling them to moderate a discourse on masculinity and to publicize the manhood of themselves and their addressees. The chapter explores how this culture of epistolary exhibition was rooted in the androcentric culture of paideia (education for elite males) and predicated on an ethos of competitive display similar to Second Sophistic oratory. The Cappadocians framed letter writing among intellectuals as an exercise in extreme exertion, one that promoted moral excellence. Unlike portrayals of verbal duels among orators, where winners and losers resulted in a zero-sum outcome, in letter exchanges the Cappadocians promoted character formation for both author and recipient.In orchestrating these exercises in character formation, the Cappadocians cut across religious lines and established themselves as moderators of late-fourth century masculinity.

Chapter 3 begins by laying out the late-fourth century theological conflict that set the backdrop for the following texts. It then investigates Nyssen’s and Nazianzen’s hagiographic biographies of third-century bishop Gregory Thaumaturgus (c. 210–270), Basil (the Great), Macrina, and Gorgonia; each affiliated with pro-Nicene leadership. In these accounts, the protagonists demonstrate feats of strength and perseverance, modeled on ancient Greek athletes and warriors and biblical heroes; the latter refashioned to accord with characterizations of classical masculinity.The subjects stand out as examples of piety and authority not only for their actions, but also for their appearance.Nyssen and Nazianzen detailed the beauty of each as a testament of their excellence, an example of evaluating the body according to classical Greek norms.As projections of moral superiority and fortitude, these personifications projected Trinitarian supporters as a synthesis of holiness and manhood.By authoring these accounts, Nyssen and Nazianzen enhanced their own capital as theologians associated with saints acquitted through various contests that defended truth.

Chapter 2 explores the circulation of masculinity through the lens of friendship and sensory rhetoric.Coordinating the language of Christian fellowship and classical friendship, the Cappadocians involved correspondents in an aesthetic based on a union of souls.Using imagery of the body to express affinity of soul, the Cappadocians engaged correspondents in an agōn predicated on mutual faith and/or shared manhood.These letters of affection mimicked the language of contest with the Cappadocians choreographing encounters based on reciprocal seeing, speaking/hearing, and touching. In portraying union of souls through corporeal imagination, the Cappadocians reordered the bodily senses as masculine.These friendships were reinforced through the care taken in the penmanship of the letters and careful selection of messengers, elements that reflected the performative nature of correspondence. And through framing correspondence as a form of gift-giving, the Cappadocians further underscored friendship and Christian fellowship as elements of masculinity rooted in the traditions of classical Greece.