The surface of the Greenland Ice Sheet is darkening, which accelerates its surface melt. The role of glacier ice algae in reducing surface albedo is widely recognised but not well quantified and the feedbacks between the algae and the weathering crust remain poorly understood. In this letter, we summarise recent advances in the study of the biological darkening of the Greenland Ice Sheet and highlight three key research priorities that are required to better understand and forecast algal-driven melt: (i) identifying the controls on glacier ice algal growth and mortality, (ii) quantifying the spatio-temporal variability in glacier ice algal biomass and processes involved in cell redistribution and (iii) determining the albedo feedbacks between algal biomass and weathering crust characteristics. Addressing these key research priorities will allow us to better understand the supraglacial ice-algal system and to develop an integrated model incorporating the algal and physical controls on ice surface albedo.

Albedo is a key factor in modulating the absorption of solar radiation on ice surfaces. Satellite measurements have shown a general reduction in albedo across the Greenland ice sheet over the past few decades, particularly along the western margin of the ice sheet, a region known as the Dark Zone (albedo < 0.45). Here we chose a combination of Landsat 4–8 and Sentinel 2 imagery to enable us to derive the longest record of albedo variations in the Dark Zone, running from 1984 to 2020. We developed a simple, pragmatic and efficient sensor transformation to provide a long time series of consistent, harmonized satellite imagery. Narrow to broadband conversion algorithms were developed from regression models of harmonized satellite data and in situ albedo from the Program for Monitoring of the Greenland Ice Sheet (PROMICE) automatic weather stations. The albedo derived from the harmonized Landsat and Sentinel 2 data shows that the maximum extent of the Dark Zone expanded rapidly between 2005 and 2007, increasing to ~280% of the average annual maximum extent of 2900 km2 to ~8000 km2 since. The Dark Zone is continuing to darken slowly, with the average annual minimum albedo decreasing at a rate of $\sim \!-0.0006 \pm 0.0004 \, {\rm a}^{-1}$ (p = 0.16, 2001–2020).

Pigmented microalgae inhabiting snow and ice environments lower the albedo of glacier and ice-sheet surfaces, significantly enhancing surface melt. Our ability to accurately predict their role in glacier and ice-sheet surface mass balance is limited by the current lack of empirical data to constrain their representation in predictive models. Here we present new empirical optical properties for snow and ice algae and incorporate them in a radiative transfer model to investigate their impact on snow and ice surface albedo. We found ice algal cells to be more efficient absorbers than snow algal cells, but their blooms had comparable impact on surface albedo due to the different photic conditions of their habitats. We then used the model to reconstruct the effect of ice algae on bare ice albedo spectra collected at our field site in southern Greenland, where blooms dropped the albedo locally by between 3 and 43%, equivalent to 1–10 L m$^{-2}$ d$^{-1}$ of melted ice. Using the newly parametrized model, future studies could investigate biological albedo reduction and algal quantification from remote hyperspectral and multispectral imagery.

The Subglacial Antarctic Lakes Scientific Access (SALSA) Project accessed Mercer Subglacial Lake using environmentally clean hot-water drilling to examine interactions among ice, water, sediment, rock, microbes and carbon reservoirs within the lake water column and underlying sediments. A ~0.4 m diameter borehole was melted through 1087 m of ice and maintained over ~10 days, allowing observation of ice properties and collection of water and sediment with various tools. Over this period, SALSA collected: 60 L of lake water and 10 L of deep borehole water; microbes >0.2 μm in diameter from in situ filtration of ~100 L of lake water; 10 multicores 0.32–0.49 m long; 1.0 and 1.76 m long gravity cores; three conductivity–temperature–depth profiles of borehole and lake water; five discrete depth current meter measurements in the lake and images of ice, the lake water–ice interface and lake sediments. Temperature and conductivity data showed the hydrodynamic character of water mixing between the borehole and lake after entry. Models simulating melting of the ~6 m thick basal accreted ice layer imply that debris fall-out through the ~15 m water column to the lake sediments from borehole melting had little effect on the stratigraphy of surficial sediment cores.

Subglacial Antarctic aquatic environments are important targets for scientific exploration due to the unique ecosystems they support and their sediments containing palaeoenvironmental records. Directly accessing these environments while preventing forward contamination and demonstrating that it has not been introduced is logistically challenging. The Whillans Ice Stream Subglacial Access Research Drilling (WISSARD) project designed, tested and implemented a microbiologically and chemically clean method of hot-water drilling that was subsequently used to access subglacial aquatic environments. We report microbiological and biogeochemical data collected from the drilling system and underlying water columns during sub-ice explorations beneath the McMurdo and Ross ice shelves and Whillans Ice Stream. Our method reduced microbial concentrations in the drill water to values three orders of magnitude lower than those observed in Whillans Subglacial Lake. Furthermore, the water chemistry and composition of microorganisms in the drill water were distinct from those in the subglacial water cavities. The submicron filtration and ultraviolet irradiation of the water provided drilling conditions that satisfied environmental recommendations made for such activities by national and international committees. Our approach to minimizing forward chemical and microbiological contamination serves as a prototype for future efforts to access subglacial aquatic environments beneath glaciers and ice sheets.

Glacier mass balance and hydrology are strongly influenced by the distribution of snow accumulation at the start of the melt season. Two successive end-of-winter snow-cover surveys at Finsterwalderbreen, Svalbard, are here used to investigate the interannual variability in the spatial distribution of accumulation, and its relationship with topography. 40–62% of the variance in snow depth was not determined by elevation (assessed by linear regression of snow depth on surface elevation), which could not therefore necessarily be used as a sole predictor of the spatial distribution of accumulation here. Principal components (PC) analysis of the topographic variables elevation, slope, north–south and east–west aspects shows that only two of six PCs, determined for 2years’ sampling locations, had maximum loadings on altitude; aspect was more important, with maximum loadings on four PCs. Hierarchical cluster analysis was then applied to these PCs: significant correlations with accumulation in each of two terrain clusters were given by (1) elevation and slope, (2) east–west aspect only (1999); (1) elevation only, (2) no significant correlations (2000). There is strong interannual variability not only in the magnitude of winter accumulation (0.41 mw.e. in 1999, 0.58 mw.e. in 2000), but also in its spatial distribution, and its relationship with topography.

There is very little information about the activity of microbial communities on the surface of glaciers, though there is an increasing body of evidence to show that they strongly influence the biogeochemistry of these habitats. We measured bacterial abundance and production in cryoconite holes on Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine glaciers in order to estimate the role of heterotrophic bacteria within the carbon budget of glacial ecosystems. Our results demonstrate an active bacterial community on the surface of glaciers with doubling times that vary from a few hours to hundreds of days depending on the glacier and position (water or sediments) within the cryoconite hole. However, bacterial production is only ∼2–3% of the published literature values of community respiration from similar habitats, indicating that other types of microbes (e.g. eukaryotic organisms) may also play a role in the C cycle of glaciers. We estimate that only up to 7% of the organic C in cryoconite sediments is utilized by the heterotrophic bacterial community annually, suggesting that the surface of glaciers can accumulate organic carbon, and that this C may be important for biogeochemical activity downstream to adjacent ecosystems.

Variations in the chemical composition of subsurface runoff within Canada Glacier, Antarctica, are used to identify the main source waters, which are vertical surfaces, and melt from solar-heated debris within channels, cryoconite holes and pools. The main flow paths are subsurface connections between cryoconite holes, pools and riffles. The latter may become partially disconnected during hard freeze. The chemical composition of runoff at the outlet of Canada Glacier during January 2000 was dominated by Ca2+, HCO3– and sea salt (Na+ and Cl–), and became depleted in sea-salt and non-sea-salt (*) SO42– as the subsurface drainage system in a frozen pool-and-riffle system was flushed and the melting ice surface became depleted of overwinter dry deposited salts. Only during 2 days of hard freeze did sea salt and *SO42– increase in concentration together. Otherwise, sea salt and *SO42– declined while *Ca2+ and HCO3– increased. The latter ions are derived from the chemical weathering of sediment in frozen-topped pools, channels and cryoconite holes. It is inferred that the hydrochemical processes which occur in the vestigial, subsurface drainage system are the elution of ions from ice melt, dilution of these ions downstream by ice melt from vertical surfaces and the dissolution of dust, in subsurface pools, channels and/or cryoconite holes.

The nature of microscopic particulates in meteoric and accreted ice from the Vostok (Antarctica) ice core is assessed in conjunction with existing ice-core data to investigate the mechanism by which particulates are incorporated into refrozen lake water. Melted ice samples from a range of ice-core depths were filtered through 0.2 μm polycarbonate membranes, and secondary electron images were collected at ×500 magnification using a scanning electron microscope. Image analysis software was used to characterize the size and shape of particulates. Similar distributions of major-axis lengths, surface areas and shape factors (aspect ratio and compactness) for particulates in all accreted ice samples suggest that a single process may be responsible for incorporating the vast majority of particulates for all depths. Calculation of Stokes settling velocities for particulates of various sizes implies that 98% of particulates observed could ‘float’ to the ice–water interface with upward water velocities of 0.0003 ms–1 where they could be incorporated by growing ice crystals, or by rising frazil ice crystals. The presence of particulates that are expected to sink in the water column (2%) and the uneven distribution of particulates in the ice core further implies that periodic perturbations to the lake’s circulation, involving increased velocities, may have occurred in the past.

Stable-isotope (δD and δ18O) data from the Vostok (East Antarctica) ice core are used to explore whether or not subglacial Vostok lake is in isotopic steady state. A simple box model shows that the lake is likely to be in steady state on time-scales of the order of 104–105 years (three to four residence times of the water in the lake), given our current knowledge of north–south and east–west gradients in the stable-isotopic composition of precipitation in the vicinity of Vostok station and Ridge B. However, the lake may not be in perfect steady state depending on the precise location of the melting area, which determines the source region of inflowing ice, and on the magnitude of the east–west gradient in isotopic compositions in the vicinity of Vostok station and Ridge B.

Cryoconite holes are water-filled holes in the surface of a glacier caused by enhanced ice melt around trapped sediment. Measurements on the ablation zones of four glaciers in Taylor Valley, Antarctica, show that cryoconite holes cover about 4–6% of the ice surface. They typically vary in diameter from 5 to 145 cm, with depths ranging from 4 to 56 cm. In some cases, huge holes form with 5 m depths and 30 m diameters. Unlike cryoconite holes elsewhere, these have ice lids up to 36 cm thick and melt from within each spring. About one-half of the holes are connected to the near-surface hydrologic system and the remainder are isolated. The duration of isolation, estimated from the chloride accumulation in hole waters, commonly shows ages of several years, with one hole of 10 years. The cryoconite holes in the McMurdo Dry Valleys create a near-surface hydrologic system tens of cm below the ice surface. The glacier surface itself is generally frozen and dry. Comparison of water levels between holes a few meters apart shows independent cycles of water storage and release. Most likely, local freeze–thaw effects control water passage and therefore temporary storage. Rough calculations indicate that the holes generate at least 13% of the observed runoff on the one glacier measured. This hydrologic system represents the transition between a melting ice cover with supraglacial streams and one entirely frozen and absent of water.

The chemical composition of snow and meltwater in the 13 km2 catchment of Scott Turnerbreen, Svalbard, was investigated during the spring and summer of 1993. This paper assesses the provenance of solute in the snowpack and its impact on runoff chemistry. Dry snow contains 420μeql-1 of solute, is slightly acidic (pH 5.4) and is dominated by Na+ and Cl-. Wet snow is more dilute (total concentration 340μeql-1), and less acidic (pH 5.9). This is consistent with the elution of ions from the snowpack by meltwater. Snowpack solute can be partitioned into the following fractions: sea-salt aerosol, acid aerosol and crustal. About 98% of snowpack solute is sea salt, yielding 22000 kg km-2a-1. The behaviour of snowpack-derived Cl- in runoff is distinctive, peaking at over 800 μeql-1 early in the melt season as runoff picks up, before declining quasi-exponentially. This represents the discharge of snowmelt concentrated by elution within the snowpack which subsequently becomes relatively dilute. A solute yield of 140 kg km-2 a-1 can be attributed to anthropogenically generated acid aerosols, representing long-range atmospheric transport of pollutants, a potential contributor to Arctic runoff acidification.

The ability of the Utah energy-balance and snowmelt model (UEB) to simulate decline in snow water equivalent (SWE) at an extreme location was assessed. Field data were collected at Paternoster Valley, Signy Island, South Orkney Islands (60°43′S) during the austral summer of 1996–97. This is the first application of UEB in a maritime Antarctic site. UEB is a physically based snow melt model using a lumped snow-pack representation with primary state variables SWE and snow pack-energy content (U). Meteorological inputs are air temperature, wind speed, humidity, precipitation and total incoming solar and longwave radiation. The Paternoster Valley catchment was subdivided into eight non-contiguous terrain classes for sampling and modelling using a geographical information system (GIS). Simulations of SWE in each of these classes were compared พ with field observations. It is shown that initial U and snow-surface thermal conductance (Ks) affect model simulations. Good approximations of SWE depletion are obtained using measured incoming solar radiation to drive the model but there are shortcomings in the characterization of long wave radiation and sensible-heat fluxes.

Solute acquisition by Alpine glacial meltwaters is the result of the coupling of different pairs of reactions, one of which usually involves dissolved gases. Hence, the availability of atmospheric gases to solution is an important control on the composition of glacial meltwaters. The chemical compositions of the two main components of the bulk meltwater, quick flow and delayed flow, are dominated by different geochemical processes. Delayed flow waters are solute-rich and exhibit high p(CO2) characteristics. The slow transit of these waters through a distributed drainage system and the predominance of relatively rapid reactions, such as sulphide oxidation and carbonate dissolution, in this environment maximize solute acquisition. Quick-flow waters are dilute, both because of their rapid transit through ice-walled conduits and open channels, and because the weathering reactions are fuelled by relatively slow gaseous diffusion of (CO2) into solution, despite solute acquisition being dominated by rapid surface exchange reactions. As a consequence, quick flow usually bears a low or open-system p(CO2) signature. Bulk meltwaters are more likely to exhibit low p(CO2) values when suspended-sediment concentrations are high, which promotes post-mixing reactions. This conceptual model suggests that the composition of both quick flow and delayed flow is likely to be temporally variable, since kinetic, rather than equilibrium, factors determine the composition.

A new method of hydrograph separation for bulk meltwaters draining Alpine glaciers is proposed. It is based on the two-component (subglacial and englacial) mixing model of Collins (1978), but allows the composition of the subglacial component to vary between ascending and descending lines of the hydrograph. The mean englacial component can be derived from linear relationships between sulphate concentrations and other ions in bulk meltwaters. On certain occasions during the ablation season, the maximum concentration of ions in the subglacial component can be determined from the linear relationship between bulk meltwater sulphate concentrations and discharge. The bulk discharge is then a direct measure of the mass fraction of the englacial component. At maximum discharge, the contribution of the subglacial component approaches zero, which has implications for the storage and mixing of waters in subglacial reservoirs. Further, the subglacial component is not of constant composition, and may itself be a mixture of dilute supraglacial and concentrated subglacial water.

The assumptions involved in the use of chemically based mixing models for analysis of flow routing of meltwaters in glacierized basins are critically evaluated. The assumption that glacial drainage systems consist of only two primary flow components is arbitrary and must be supported by independent evidence. Recent studies of the processes by which meltwaters acquire solute indicate that the assumption that flow components have unique and constant chemical compositions is unlikely to be correct. Source-water composition and weathering potential will vary over the course of a melt season, and the extent of subglacial weathering is strongly dependent upon such factors as meltwater residence time and the availability of reactive sediment, both of which are known to vary on diurnal to seasonal time-scales. Mixing of flow components does not appear to be confined to the terminal regions of glaciers and is therefore unlikely to be conservative as assumed. A multi-parameter mixing model is applied to the analysis of data on the chemistry of waters sampled from boreholes drilled through Haut Glacier d’Arolla, Switzerland, to demonstrate the range of dissolved species for which the assumption of conservative mixing is violated. The consequences of this violation for quantitative hydrograph separation are shown to be highly significant. The utility of mixing models as a tool for the investigation of glacier hydrological systems is questionable and the results of previous studies are unreliable.