As children advance through school, derived words become increasingly common in their reading materials. Previous studies have shown that children’s knowledge of derivational morphology develops relatively slowly, but there is more to learn about this development. This study examined differences in knowledge of the form and meaning of suffixes across grade levels (Grades 3, 5, and 8) and different types of derivational suffixes (adjectives and nominals). We assessed 309 English-speaking children on word reading and receptive vocabulary tests and two tasks designed to assess the form (orthographic knowledge) and meaning (semantic knowledge) of 28 derivational suffixes (14 adjectives and 14 nominals). Overall, our findings showed a significant improvement in identifying and understanding derivational suffixes from Grade 3 to Grade 5 and a smaller, but still significant, improvement from Grade 5 to Grade 8. Our findings regarding suffix types were mixed. While written forms of adjectives were identified more accurately than nominals across all grades, this advantage did not extend to the students’ understanding of the meaning of the suffixes. These results highlight the distinction between the identification of suffixes and the understanding of their meaning. We discuss our results in relation to suffix frequency in children’s reading materials.

Reactions between hydroxy-Al ions and orthosilicic acid as influenced by citric acid were studied at an initial Si concentration of 1.6 × 10−3 M, Si/Al molar ratios of 0.5 and 1.0, OH/Al molar ratios of 1.0-3.0, and citric acid/Al molar ratios of 0-0.3. In the absence of citric acid and at OH/A1 ratios of 1.0-2.8, imogolite (>0.01 μm) was dominant in the precipitates. At citric acid/Al ratios of 0.01-0.1, imogolite and/or pseudoboehmite were dominant in the precipitates at OH/Al ratios of 1.0 and 2.0, and imogolite and/or ill-defined aluminosilicate complexes at OH/Al ratio of 2.8. Instead of allophane or “proto-imogolite” allophane being the predominant species in the precipitates, the formation of ill-defined aluminosilicate complexes at OH/Al ratio of 3.0 was steadily promoted by increasing the solution citric acid/Al ratios from 0 to 0.3. The freeze-dried soluble products (<0.01 μ) ranged from silica gel to “proto-imogolite,” depending upon the basicity of Al and the level of citric acid of the parent solution. The amount of “proto-imogolite” increased with increasing citric acid/Al ratios from 0 to 0.1 in solution. Complexing low molecular weight organic acids, such as citric acid, impeded the formation of the short-range ordered aluminosilicates, allophanes and imogolite.

Hydroxyaluminosilicate (HAS) and hydroxyaluminum (HyA) ionic solutions having final Al concentrations ranging from 3.74 to 4.00 mM; NaOH/Al molar ratios of 1.0, 2.0 and 2.5; and Si/Al molar ratios of 0.00, 0.27–0.30, 0.51–0.56 and 0.95–1.01 were prepared through the interaction of AlCl3, or-thosilicic acid and NaOH solutions. When these solutions reacted with <2 µm sized vermiculite (Vt) and montmorillonite (Mt), varying amounts of Al and Si were fixed on Vt and Mt clays. Potassium fixation and exchange capacities of HyA/HAS (OH/Al = 1.0, 2.0 and 2.5)-Vt and HyA/HAS (OH/AI = 2.0)-Mt complexes were compared with those of untreated Vt and Mt at added K levels ranging from 21 to 319 cmolc kg−1. The untreated Vt clay showed K fixation as high as 94 cmolc kg−1, in contrast to only 16 cmolc kg−1 exchangeable K. The untreated Mt fixed a maximum of 9 cmolc K kg−1 out of a total K adsorption capacity of 67 creole kg−1. In the HyA/HAS-Vt complexes, K fixation reduced drastically in comparison to untreated Vt, and ranged from 9 to 24 cmolc kg−1 out of their total K adsorption capacities of 61 to 81 cmolc kg−1. In the HyA/HAS-Mt complexes, too, the amount of K fixed reduced to a great extent in comparison to Mt and ranged from 1.48 to 1.84 cmolc kg−1. Potassium became more exchangeable due to the presence of hydroxy-interlayers in the clays. The reduction in CEC and the well-known propping effects of hydroxy-cations’ islands in the interlayers might have hindered K fixation by the complexes. The relationships of maximum K fixing capacities of the HyA/HAS-Vt complexes with the amounts of Al, Si and Al + Si fixed on Vt were all exponential and negative. However, the amount of Al + Si or only Al fixed on Vt appeared to be the best indicator of K fixation capacities of hydroxyinterlayered Vt clay.

The purpose of this study was to examine the early growth of morphological awareness and its predictors. We followed 172 English-speaking Canadian children (82 girls, 90 boys, Mage = 75.56 months at the first assessment point) from Grade 1 to Grade 3 and assessed them on nonverbal IQ, phonological short-term memory, phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and vocabulary at the beginning of Grade 1 and on morphological awareness at the end of Grade 1, beginning and end of Grade 2, and beginning of Grade 3. Results of growth curve modeling showed different growth patterns for Word Analogy and Sentence Analogy. In addition, vocabulary and phonological awareness were associated with the initial status of morphological awareness, and phonological awareness and letter knowledge predicted the growth rate of morphological awareness. These findings suggest that code-related skills drive the development of morphological awareness during the early years of literacy instruction.

We examined the growth trajectories of reading in a consistent orthography (Greek) in two developmental periods (from Grade 1 to Grade 4 and from Grade 4 to Grade 10) and what cognitive skills predict the growth patterns. Seventy-five Greek-speaking children were assessed in Grades 1, 2, 4, 6, and 10 on word-, nonword-, and text-reading fluency. In Grades 1 and 4, they were also assessed on phonological awareness, rapid naming, phonological memory, orthographic knowledge, and articulation rate. Results of growth curve modeling showed that during the first developmental period, there was a rapid initial growth from Grade 1 to Grade 2 followed by a less rapid growth from Grade 2 to Grade 4. In the second developmental period, the slow growth continued. In both developmental periods, rapid naming and orthographic knowledge predicted the initial status of all reading outcomes and phonological memory predicted the initial status of nonword-reading fluency. Phonological awareness predicted the initial status of nonword-reading fluency in the first developmental period and the initial status of word- and text-reading fluency in the second developmental period. None of the cognitive skills predicted the growth rate in reading skills. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Recently huge amount of dust Mdust ≃ 106−7M⊙ in galaxies at z = 7–8 has been discovered by ALMA observations. The suggested timescale of the dust production was a few–several×108 yr, while the stellar mass was several × 109M⊙. This amount of dust cannot be easily explained only by a supply from supernovae if we consider the dust destruction by reverse shocks. We propose that these values can be consistently explained if we take into account the grain growth in the interstellar medium (ISM). This scenario successfully reproduces the evolution of the dust mass, as well as the SFR, and stellar mass simultaneously. We conclude that even at such an early epoch of the Universe, the dust grain growth in the ISM plays a significant role in galaxies.

The spectral energy distribution (SED) model should treat the evolution of a galaxy from its birth. Dust in galaxies affects the formation and evolution of galaxies in various ways. For example, dust grains scatter and absorb stellar emitted ultraviolet (UV) photons and re-emit the radiation at infrared (IR) wavelengths. In this work, we construct a galaxy SED model based on our dust evolution model (Asano et al. 2013a,b, 2014) with a rigorous treatment of the chemical evolution. To reduce the computational cost, we adopt mega-grain approximation (MGA; (MGA; Inoue, 2005). MGA regards a high density dusty region as a huge size (10 pc) dust grain for calculating dust scattering. In this approximation, we can solve the radiative transfer easily and provide SEDs and attenuation curves of galaxies. This model can be used to fit any galaxy in the wavelength range of 10 nm-3 mm.

Recently, spectroscopic detections of O[III] 88 μm and Ly-α emission lines from the z ≍ 9.1 galaxy MACS1149-JD1 have been presented, and with these, some interesting properties of this galaxy were uncovered. One such property is that MACS1149-JD1 exhibits a significant Balmer break at around rest-frame 4000 Å, which may indicate that the galaxy has experienced large variations in star formation rate prior to z ∼ 9, with a rather long period of low star formation activity. While some simulations predict large variations in star formation activity in high-redshift galaxies, it is unclear whether the simulations can reproduce the kind of variations seen in MACS1149-JD1. Here, we utilize synthetic spectra of simulated galaxies from two simulation suites in order to study to what extent these can accurately reproduce the spectral features (specifically the Balmer break) observed in MACS1149-JD1. We show that while the simulations used in this study produce galaxies with varying star formation histories, galaxies such as MACS1149-JD1 would be very rare in the simulations. In principle, future observations with the James Webb Space Telescope may tell us if MACS1149-JD1 represents something rare, or if such galaxies are more common than predicted by current simulations.

We have developed a new SED fitting tool specialized for frontier redshift galaxies. It is a common case for high-z galaxies that the available data are restricted to rich optical to near-infrared photometry and few far-infrared (FIR) data deep enough to detect the faint object (e.g., HST/WFC3 + Spitzer/IRAC + ALMA). In such situation, one cannot perform a complicated modeling of dust emission in FIR regime. We then adopt simple treatment for the dust emission using empirical LIRG templates. Instead, we adopt a sophisticated and physically motivated modeling for stellar and nebular emission parts in rest-frame UV-to-optical regime. Our new code fits not only broad band photometry but also spectral emission line flux. There is an option to fit observed SED with two templates with different physical properties. Our new code, PANHIT, is now in public, and was already applied to some high-z frontier galaxies.

Panchromatic modeling is one of the most powerful tools at our disposal to measure reliably the physical properties of galaxies across cosmic times. We present here an entirely new implementation in python of one such tool: CIGALE. Developed along three main design principles: simplicity, modularity, and efficiency, it has proven to be a versatile code that in addition to estimating the physical properties of galaxies (or regions within galaxies), can generate arbitrary sets of theoretical models or be used as a library to build other tools. Among its defining features, it is a truly panchromatic code ranging from the far-ultraviolet to the radio that takes into account numerous physical components (including active nuclei or synchrotron emission), that can fit non-photometric data, handle upper limits, determine photometric redshifts, and even build mock catalogs.

We present ALMA detection of the [O iii] 88 μm line and 850 μm dust continuum emission in a Y-dropout Lyman break galaxy, MACS0416_Y1. The [O iii] detection confirms the object with a spectroscopic redshift to be z = 8.3118±0.0003. The 850 μm continuum intensity (0.14 mJy) implies a large dust mass on the order of 4×106M⊙. The ultraviolet-to-far infrared spectral energy distribution modeling, where the [O iii] emissivity model is incorporated, suggests the presence of a young (τage ≍ 4 Myr), star-forming (SFR ≍ 60M⊙yr−1), and moderately metal-polluted (Z ≍ 0.2Z⊙) stellar component with a stellar mass of 3 × 108M⊙. An analytic dust mass evolution model with a single episode of star formation does not reproduce the metallicity and dust mass in ≍ 4 Myr, suggesting an underlying evolved stellar component as the origin of the dust mass.

We report fourteen and twenty-eight protocluster candidates at z = 5.7 and 6.6 over 14 and 19 deg2 areas, respectively, selected from 2,230 Lyα emitters (LAEs) photometrically identified with Subaru/Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) deep images. Six out of the 42 protocluster candidates include at least 1 spectroscopically confirmed LAEs at redshifts up to z = 6.574. By the comparisons with the cosmological Lyα radiative transfer (RT) model reproducing LAEs with the reionization effects, we find that more than a half of these protocluster candidates might be progenitors of the present-day clusters with a mass of ≳ 1014M⊙. We also investigate the correlation between LAE overdensity and Lya rest-frame equivalent width (EW), because the cosmological Lyα RT model suggests that a slope of EW-overdensity relation is steepened towards the epoch of cosmic reionization (EoR), due to the existence of the ionized bubbles around galaxy overdensities easing the escape of Lyα emission from the partly neutral intergalactic medium. The available HSC data suggest that the slope of the EW-overdensity correlation does not evolve from the post-reionization epoch z = 5.7 to the EoR z = 6.6 beyond the moderately large statistical errors.

We present a 4.7σ detection of the [OIII] 88 μm line in a gravitationally-lensed Lyman break galaxy, RXC J2248-ID3, using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). We did not detect [CII] 158 μm and rest-frame 90 μm dust continuum emission, suggesting that the bulk of the interstellar medium (ISM) is ionized. Our two-component SED model combining the previous Hubble Space Telescope (HST) data and new photometry obtained from Very Large Telescope (VLT), Spitzer and ALMA suggests the presence of young (∼2 Myr) and mature (∼600 Myr) stellar components with the metallicity of Z = 0.2Z⊙. Our findings are in contrast with previous results claiming a very young, metal-poor stellar component.

We examined the cross-lagged relations between word reading fluency in the two orthographic systems of Japanese: phonetic (syllabic) Hiragana and morphographic Kanji. One hundred forty-two Japanese-speaking children were assessed on word reading fluency twice in Grade 1 (Times 1 and 2) and twice in Grade 2 (Times 3 and 4). Nonverbal IQ, vocabulary, phonological awareness, morphological awareness, and rapid automatized naming were also assessed in Time 1. Results of path analysis revealed that Time 1 Hiragana fluency predicted Time 2 Kanji fluency after controlling for the cognitive skills. Time 2 Hiragana fluency did not predict Time 3 Kanji fluency or vice versa after the autoregressor was controlled, but Hiragana and Kanji fluency were reciprocally related between Times 3 and 4. These findings provide evidence for a cross-script transfer of word reading fluency across the two contrastive orthographic systems, and the first evidence of fluency in a morphographic script predicting fluency development in a phonetic script within the same language.

A range of allophane samples (atomic AI/Si bulk ratios 1.1-1.9) from Silica Springs, New Zealand, has been characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Binding energies of Si 2s, Si 2p, Al 2p, O 1s, C 1s, and N 1s electrons, together with the kinetic energies of Al KL23L23 Auger electrons, at or near the surface of allophane aggregates, have been derived. The values for Al, Si and O electrons are similar to those for kaolinite but also to those for some framework silicates (feldspars) having 4-coordinate Al. Values for N electrons suggest that N occurs in organic structures. Comparison of XPS and bulk Al/Si ratios shows an enrichment of Al at or near the surface of allophane aggregates. The same is true for C and N. Extraction with citrate-dithionite-bicarbonate (CDB) reagent leaves the surfaces depleted in Al. The CDB extracts have higher Al/Si ratios than the bulk allophanes. Similarly, CDB treatment reduces the degree of surface enrichment of C and N. Small increases in the binding energies of Si electrons following CDB treatment suggest partial dissolution of the bulk structure though a concomitant removal of a separate phase or species cannot be ruled out. The results may be accounted for in terms of the structure previously suggested for the primary spherules of Silica Springs allophane (Childs et al., 1990) though the composition of the spherules at or near the surface of the allophane aggregates is different from those of the bulk.

The objectives of this study were to infer phenotypic causal networks involving gestation length (GL) and calving difficulty (CD) for the primiparity of 1850 Japanese Black heifers, and the birth weight (BWT), withers height (WH) and chest girth (CHG) of their full blood calves, and to compare the causal effects among them. The inductive causation (IC) algorithm was employed to search for causal links among these traits; it was applied to the posterior distribution of the residual (co)variance matrix of a multiple-trait sire-maternal grand sire (MGS) model. The IC algorithm implemented with 95% and 90% highest posterior density intervals detected only one structure with links between GL and BWT (WH or CHG) and between BWT (WH or CHG) and CD, although their directions were not resolved. Therefore, a possible causal structure based on the networks obtained from the IC algorithm [GL→BWT (WH or CHG)→CD] was fitted using a structural equation model to infer causal structure coefficients between the traits. The structural coefficients of GL on BWT and of BWT on GL on the observable scale showed that an extra day of GL led to a 270-g gain in BWT, and a 1-kg increase in BWT increased the risk for dystocia by 1.1%, in the causal structure. Similarly, an increase in GL by 1 day resulted in a 2.1 (2.0)-mm growth in WH (CHG), and a 1-cm increase in WH (CHG) increased the risk of dystocia by 1.2% (0.9%). The structural equation model was also fitted to alternative causal structures, which involved the addition of a directed link from GL to CD, or GL→CD to the structures described above. The inferred structural coefficients with the alternative structures were almost the same as the corresponding ones that had GL→BWT (WH or CHG)→CD. However, the direct causal effect of the extra link from GL on CD was similar to the indirect causal effect of GL through the mediating effect of BWT (WH or CHG) on CD and significant (P<0.05). This suggest that maternal genetic effects might not be removed completely from the residual variance components in the sire-MGS model, and the application of the IC algorithm to the variances from the model could detect an incorrect structure. Nonetheless, fitting the structural equation model to the causal structure provided useful information such as the magnitude of the causal effects between the traits.

We report continuum observations of the NGC 7538–IRS 1, 2 and 3 regions made with the NRO 45-metre dish between 43 and 90 GHz, and present a brief interpretation.