Observational evidence suggests that increased whole grain (WG) intake reduces the risks of many non-communicable diseases, such as CVD, type 2 diabetes, obesity and certain cancers. More recently, studies have shown that WG intake lowers all-cause and cause-specific mortality. Much of the reported evidence on risk reduction is from US and Scandinavian populations, where there are tangible WG dietary recommendations. At present there is no quantity-specific WG dietary recommendation in the UK, instead we are advised to choose WG or higher fibre versions. Despite recognition of WG as an important component of a healthy diet, monitoring of WG intake in the UK has been poor, with the latest intake assessment from data collected in 2000–2001 for adults and in 1997 for children. To update this information we examined WG intake in the National Diet and Nutrition Survey rolling programme 2008–2011 after developing our database of WG food composition, a key resource in determining WG intake accurately. The results showed median WG intakes remain low in both adults and children and below that of countries with quantity-specific guidance. We also found a reduction in C-reactive protein concentrations and leucocyte counts with increased WG intake, although no association with other markers of cardio-metabolic health. The recent recommendations by the UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition to increase dietary fibre intake will require a greater emphasis on consuming more WG. Specific recommendations on WG intake in the UK are warranted as is the development of public health policy to promote consumption of these important foods.

Public health bodies in many countries are attempting to increase population-wide habitual consumption of whole grains. Limited data on dietary habits exist in Singaporean children. The present study therefore aimed to assess whole grain consumption patterns in Singaporean children and compare these with dietary intake, physical activity and health parameters. Dietary intake (assessed by duplicate, multipass, 24-h food recalls), physical activity (by questionnaire) and anthropometric measurements were collected from a cross-section of 561 Singaporean children aged 6–12 years. Intake of whole grains was evaluated using estimates of portion size and international food composition data. Only 38·3 % of participants reported consuming whole grains during the dietary data collection days. Median intake of whole grains in consumers was 15·3 (interquartile range 5·4–34·8) g/d. The most commonly consumed whole-grain food groups were rice (29·5 %), wholemeal bread (28·9 %) and ready-to-eat breakfast cereals (18·8 %). A significantly lower proportion of Malay children (seven out of fifty-eight; P < 0·0001) consumed whole grains than children of other ethnicities. Only 6 % of all children consumed the amount of whole grains most commonly associated with improved health outcomes (48 g/d). There was no relationship between whole grain consumption patterns and BMI, waist circumference or physical activity but higher whole grain intake was associated with increased fruit, vegetable and dairy product consumption (P < 0·001). These findings demonstrate that consumption of whole grain foods is low at a population level and infrequent in Singaporean children. Future drives to increase whole-grain food consumption in this population are likely to require input from multiple stakeholders.

A number of socio-economic, biological and lifestyle characteristics change with advancing age and place very old adults at increased risk of micronutrient deficiencies. The aim of this study was to assess vitamin and mineral intakes and respective food sources in 793 75-year-olds (302 men and 491 women) in the North-East of England, participating in the Newcastle 85+ Study. Micronutrient intakes were estimated using a multiple-pass recall tool (2×24 h recalls). Determinants of micronutrient intake were assessed with multinomial logistic regression. Median vitamin D, Ca and Mg intakes were 2·0 (interquartile range (IQR) 1·2–6·5) µg/d, 731 (IQR 554–916) mg/d and 215 (IQR 166–266) mg/d, respectively. Fe intake was 8·7 (IQR 6·7–11·6) mg/d, and Se intake was 39·0 (IQR 27·3–55·5) µg/d. Cereals and cereal products were the top contributors to intakes of folate (31·5 %), Fe (49·2 %) and Se (46·7 %) and the second highest contributors to intakes of vitamin D (23·8 %), Ca (27·5 %) and K (15·8 %). More than 95 % (n 756) of the participants had vitamin D intakes below the UK’s Reference Nutrient Intake (10 µg/d). In all, >20 % of the participants were below the Lower Reference Nutrient Intake for Mg (n 175), K (n 238) and Se (n 418) (comparisons with dietary reference values (DRV) do not include supplements). As most DRV are not age specific and have been extrapolated from younger populations, results should be interpreted with caution. Participants with higher education, from higher social class and who were more physically active had more nutrient-dense diets. More studies are needed to inform the development of age-specific DRV for micronutrients for the very old.

Very old people (referred to as those aged 85 years and over) are the fastest growing age segment of many Western societies owing to the steady rise of life expectancy and decrease in later life mortality. In the UK, there are now more than 1·5 million very old people (2·5 % of total population) and the number is projected to rise to 3·3 million or 5 % over the next 20 years. Reduced mobility and independence, financial constraints, higher rates of hospitalisation, chronic diseases and disabilities, changes in body composition, taste perception, digestion and absorption of food all potentially influence either nutrient intake or needs at this stage of life. The nutritional needs of the very old have been identified as a research priority by the British Nutrition Foundation's Task Force report, Healthy Ageing: The Role of Nutrition and Lifestyle. However, very little is known about the dietary habits and nutritional status of the very old. The Newcastle 85+ study, a cohort of more than 1000 85-year olds from the North East of England and the Life and Living in Advanced Age study (New Zealand), a bicultural cohort study of advanced ageing of more than 900 participants from the Bay of Plenty and Rotorua regions of New Zealand are two unique cohort studies of ageing, which aim to assess the spectrum of health in the very old as well as examine the associations of health trajectories and outcomes with biological, clinical and social factors as each cohort ages. The nutrition domain included in both studies will help to fill the evidence gap by identifying eating patterns, and measures of nutritional status associated with better, or worse, health and wellbeing. This review will explore some of this ongoing work.

Food and nutrient intake data are scarce in very old adults (85 years and older) – one of the fastest growing age segments of Western societies, including the UK. Our primary objective was to assess energy and macronutrient intakes and respective food sources in 793 85-year-olds (302 men and 491 women) living in North-East England and participating in the Newcastle 85+ cohort Study. Dietary information was collected using a repeated multiple-pass recall (2×24 h recalls). Energy, macronutrient and NSP intakes were estimated, and the contribution (%) of food groups to nutrient intake was calculated. The median energy intake was 6·65 (interquartile ranges (IQR) 5·49–8·16) MJ/d – 46·8 % was from carbohydrates, 36·8 % from fats and 15·7 % from proteins. NSP intake was 10·2 g/d (IQR 7·3–13·7). NSP intake was higher in non-institutionalised, more educated, from higher social class and more physically active 85-year-olds. Cereals and cereal products were the top contributors to intakes of energy and most macronutrients (carbohydrates, non-milk extrinsic sugars, NSP and fat), followed by meat and meat products. The median intakes of energy and NSP were much lower than the estimated average requirement for energy (9·6 MJ/d for men and 7·7 MJ/d for women) and the dietary reference value (DRV) for NSP (≥18 g/d). The median SFA intake was higher than the DRV (≤11 % of dietary energy). This study highlights the paucity of data on dietary intake and the uncertainties about DRV for this age group.

Increased whole-grain (WG) consumption reduces the risk of CVD, type 2 diabetes and some cancers, is related to reduced body weight and weight gain and is related to improved intestinal health. Definitions of ‘WG’ and ‘WG food’ are proposed and used in some countries but are not consistent. Many countries promote WG consumption, but the emphasis given and the messages used vary. We surveyed dietary recommendations of fifty-three countries for mentions of WG to assess the extent, rationale and diversity in emphasis and wording of any recommendations. If present, recommendations were classified as either ‘primary’, where the recommendation was specific for WG, or ‘secondary’, where recommendations were made in order to achieve another (primary) target, most often dietary fibre intake. In total, 127 organisations were screened, including government, non-governmental organisations, charities and professional bodies, the WHO and European Food Safety Authority, of which forty-nine including WHO provide a WG intake recommendation. Recommendations ranged from ‘specific’ with specified target amounts (e.g. x g WG/d), ‘semi-quantitative’ where intake was linked to intake of cereal/carbohydrate foods with proportions of WG suggested (e.g. x servings of cereals of which y servings should be WG) to ‘non-specific’ based on ‘eating more’ WG or ‘choosing WG where possible’. This lack of a harmonised message may result in confusion for the consumer, lessen the impact of public health messages and pose barriers to trade in the food industry. A science-based consensus or expert opinion on WG recommendations is needed, with a global reach to guide public health decision making and increase WG consumption globally.

Demand for organic milk is partially driven by consumer perceptions that it is more nutritious. However, there is still considerable uncertainty over whether the use of organic production standards affects milk quality. Here we report results of meta-analyses based on 170 published studies comparing the nutrient content of organic and conventional bovine milk. There were no significant differences in total SFA and MUFA concentrations between organic and conventional milk. However, concentrations of total PUFA and n-3 PUFA were significantly higher in organic milk, by an estimated 7 (95 % CI −1, 15) % and 56 (95 % CI 38, 74) %, respectively. Concentrations of α-linolenic acid (ALA), very long-chain n-3 fatty acids (EPA+DPA+DHA) and conjugated linoleic acid were also significantly higher in organic milk, by an 69 (95 % CI 53, 84) %, 57 (95 % CI 27, 87) % and 41 (95 % CI 14, 68) %, respectively. As there were no significant differences in total n-6 PUFA and linoleic acid (LA) concentrations, the n-6:n-3 and LA:ALA ratios were lower in organic milk, by an estimated 71 (95 % CI −122, −20) % and 93 (95 % CI −116, −70) %. It is concluded that organic bovine milk has a more desirable fatty acid composition than conventional milk. Meta-analyses also showed that organic milk has significantly higher α-tocopherol and Fe, but lower I and Se concentrations. Redundancy analysis of data from a large cross-European milk quality survey indicates that the higher grazing/conserved forage intakes in organic systems were the main reason for milk composition differences.

Cereal-based foods are key components of the diet and they dominate most food-based dietary recommendations in order to achieve targets for intake of carbohydrate, protein and dietary fibre. Processing (milling) of grains to produce refined grain products removes key nutrients and phytochemicals from the flour and although in some countries nutrients may be replaced with mandatory fortification, overall this refinement reduces their potential nutritional quality. There is increasing evidence from both observational and intervention studies that increased intake of less-refined, whole-grain (WG) foods has positive health benefits. The highest WG consumers are consistently shown to have lower risk of developing CVD, type 2 diabetes and some cancers. WG consumers may also have better digestive health and are likely to have lower BMI and gain less weight over time. The bulk of the evidence for the benefits of WG comes from observational studies, but evidence of benefit in intervention studies and potential mechanisms of action is increasing. Overall this evidence supports the promotion of WG foods over refined grain foods in the diet, but this would require adoption of standard definitions of ‘whole grain’ and ‘whole-grain foods’ which will enable innovation by food manufacturers, provide clarity for the consumer and encourage the implementation of food-based dietary recommendations and public health strategies.

Increased whole grain intake has been shown to reduce the risk of many non-communicable diseases. Countries including the USA, Canada, Denmark and Australia have specific dietary guidelines on whole grain intake but others, including the UK, do not. Data from 1986/87 and 2000/01 have shown that whole grain intake is low and declining in British adults. The aim of the present study was to describe whole grain intakes in the most current dietary assessment of UK households using data from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey rolling programme 2008–11. In the present study, 4 d diet diaries were completed by 3073 individuals between 2008 and 2011, along with details of socio-economic status (SES). The median daily whole grain intake, calculated for each individual on a dry weight basis, was 20 g/d for adults and 13 g/d for children/teenagers. The corresponding energy-adjusted whole grain intake was 27 g/10 MJ per d for adults and 20 g/10 MJ per d for children/teenagers. Whole grain intake (absolute and energy-adjusted) increased with age, but was lowest in teenagers (13–17 years) and younger adults up to the age of 34 years. Of the total study population, 18 % of adults and 15 % of children/teenagers did not consume any whole-grain foods. Individuals from lower SES groups had a significantly lower whole grain intake than those from more advantaged classifications. The whole grain intake in the UK, although higher than in 2000/01, remains low and below that in the US and Danish recommendations in all age classes. Favourable pricing with increased availability of whole-grain foods and education may help to increase whole grain intake in countries without whole-grain recommendations. Teenagers and younger adults may need targeting to help increase whole grain consumption.

Epidemiological evidence suggests an inverse association between whole grain consumption and the risk of non-communicable diseases, such as CVD, type 2 diabetes, obesity and some cancers. A recent analysis of the National Diet and Nutrition Survey rolling programme (NDNS-RP) has shown lower intake of whole grain in the UK. It is important to understand whether the health benefits associated with whole grain intake are present at low levels of consumption. The present study aimed to investigate the association of whole grain intake with intakes of other foods, nutrients and markers of health (anthropometric and blood measures) in the NDNS-RP 2008–11, a representative dietary survey of UK households. A 4-d diet diary was completed by 3073 individuals. Anthropometric measures, blood pressure levels, and blood and urine samples were collected after diary completion. Individual whole grain intake was calculated with consumers categorised into tertiles of intake. Higher intake of whole grain was associated with significantly decreased leucocyte counts. Significantly higher concentrations of C-reactive protein were seen in adults in the lowest tertile of whole grain intake. No associations with the remaining health markers were seen, after adjustments for sex and age. Over 70 % of this population did not consume the minimum recommend intake associated with disease risk reduction, which may explain small variation across health markers. Nutrient intakes in consumers compared with non-consumers were closer to dietary reference values, such as higher intakes of fibre, Mg and Fe, and lower intakes of Na, suggesting that higher intake of whole grain is associated with improved diet quality.

Although robust associations between dietary intake and population health are evident from conventional observational epidemiology, the outcomes of large-scale intervention studies testing the causality of those links have often proved inconclusive or have failed to demonstrate causality. This apparent conflict may be due to the well-recognised difficulty in measuring habitual food intake which may lead to confounding in observational epidemiology. Urine biomarkers indicative of exposure to specific foods offer information supplementary to the reliance on dietary intake self-assessment tools, such as FFQ, which are subject to individual bias. Biomarker discovery strategies using non-targeted metabolomics have been used recently to analyse urine from either short-term food intervention studies or from cohort studies in which participants consumed a freely-chosen diet. In the latter, the analysis of diet diary or FFQ information allowed classification of individuals in terms of the frequency of consumption of specific diet constituents. We review these approaches for biomarker discovery and illustrate both with particular reference to two studies carried out by the authors using approaches combining metabolite fingerprinting by MS with supervised multivariate data analysis. In both approaches, urine signals responsible for distinguishing between specific foods were identified and could be related to the chemical composition of the original foods. When using dietary data, both food distinctiveness and consumption frequency influenced whether differential dietary exposure could be discriminated adequately. We conclude that metabolomics methods for fingerprinting or profiling of overnight void urine, in particular, provide a robust strategy for dietary exposure biomarker-lead discovery.

Previous (mainly population-based) studies have suggested the health benefits of the elective, lifelong inclusion of whole-grain foods in the diet, forming the basis for public health recommendations to increase whole grain consumption. Currently, there is limited evidence to assess how public health recommendations can best result in longer-term improvements in dietary intake. The present study aimed to assess the impact of a previous 16-week whole-grain intervention on subsequent, elective whole grain consumption in free-living individuals. Participants completed a postal FFQ 1, 6 and 12 months after the end of the whole-grain intervention study period. This FFQ included inputs for whole-grain foods commonly consumed in the UK. Whole grain consumption was significantly higher (approximately doubled) in participants who had received whole-grain foods during the intervention (P< 0·001) compared with the control group who did not receive whole-grain foods during the intervention. This increased whole grain consumption was lower than whole grain intake levels required by participants during the intervention period between 60 and 120 g whole grains/d. Aside from a significant increase (P< 0·001) in NSP consumption compared with control participants (mean increase 2–3 g/d), there were no obvious improvements to the pattern of foods of the intervention group. The results of the present study suggest that a period of direct exposure to whole-grain foods in non-habitual whole-grain food consumers may benefit subsequent, elective dietary patterns of whole grain consumption. These findings may therefore aid the development of future strategies to increase whole grain consumption for public health and/or food industry professionals.

Recommendations for whole-grain (WG) intake are based on observational studies showing that higher WG consumption is associated with reduced CVD risk. No large-scale, randomised, controlled dietary intervention studies have investigated the effects on CVD risk markers of substituting WG in place of refined grains in the diets of non-WG consumers. A total of 316 participants (aged 18–65 years; BMI>25 kg/m2) consuming < 30 g WG/d were randomly assigned to three groups: control (no dietary change), intervention 1 (60 g WG/d for 16 weeks) and intervention 2 (60 g WG/d for 8 weeks followed by 120 g WG/d for 8 weeks). Markers of CVD risk, measured at 0 (baseline), 8 and 16 weeks, were: BMI, percentage body fat, waist circumference; fasting plasma lipid profile, glucose and insulin; and indicators of inflammatory, coagulation, and endothelial function. Differences between study groups were compared using a random intercepts model with time and WG intake as factors. Although reported WG intake was significantly increased among intervention groups, and demonstrated good participant compliance, there were no significant differences in any markers of CVD risk between groups. A period of 4 months may be insufficient to change the lifelong disease trajectory associated with CVD. The lack of impact of increasing WG consumption on CVD risk markers implies that public health messages may need to be clarified to consider the source of WG and/or other diet and lifestyle factors linked to the benefits of whole-grain consumption seen in observational studies.

This report summarises a workshop convened by the UK Food Standards Agency (FSA) on 14 October 2008 to discuss current FSA-funded research on carbohydrates and cardiovascular health. The objective of this workshop was to discuss the results of recent research and to identify any areas which could inform future FSA research calls. This workshop highlighted that the FSA is currently funding some of the largest, well-powered intervention trials investigating the type of fat and carbohydrate, whole grains and fruit and vegetables, on various CVD risk factors. Results of these trials will make a substantive contribution to the evidence on diet and cardiovascular risk.

The most widely used pharmacological therapies for obesity and weight management are based on inhibition of gastrointestinal lipases, resulting in a reduced energy yield of ingested foods by reducing dietary lipid absorption. Colipase-dependent pancreatic lipase is believed to be the major gastrointestinal enzyme involved in catalysis of lipid ester bonds. There is scant literature on the action of pancreatic lipase under the range of physiological conditions that occur within the human small intestine, and the literature that does exist is often contradictory. Due to the importance of pancreatic lipase activity to nutrition and weight management, the present review aims to assess the current body of knowledge with regards to the physiology behind the action of this unique gastrointestinal enzyme system. Existing data would suggest that pancreatic lipase activity is affected by intestinal pH, the presence of colipase and bile salts, but not by the physiological range of Ca ion concentration (as is commonly assumed). The control of secretion of pancreatic lipase and its associated factors appears to be driven by gastrointestinal luminal content, particularly the presence of acid or digested proteins and fats in the duodenal lumen. Secretion of colipase, bile acids and pancreatic lipase is driven by cholecystokinin and secretin release.

The WHO recommends limiting non-milk extrinsic sugars (NMES) consumption to ≤ 10 % energy to reduce the risk of unhealthy weight gain and dental caries, and to restrict frequency of intake to ≤ 4 times/d to reduce risk of dental caries. Older adults, especially those from low-income backgrounds, are at increased risk of dental caries, yet there is little information on sugars intake (frequency of intake and food sources) in this age group. The aim of this report is to present baseline data from a community-based dietary intervention study of older adults from socially deprived areas of North East England, on the quantity and sources of total sugars, NMES, and intrinsic and milk sugars, and on frequency of NMES intake. Dietary intake was assessed using two 3-d estimated food diaries, completed by 201 participants (170 female, thirty-one male) aged 65–85 years (mean 76·7 (sd 5·5) years) recruited from sheltered housing schemes. Total sugars represented 19·6 %, NMES 9·3 %, and intrinsic and milk sugars 10·3 % of daily energy intake. Eighty-one (40·3 %) exceeded the NMES intake recommendation. Mean frequency of NMES intake was 3·4 times/d. The fifty-three participants (26·4 %) who exceeded the frequency recommendation ( ≤ 4 times/d) obtained a significantly greater percentage of energy from NMES compared with those participants who met the recommendation. The food groups ‘biscuits and cakes’ (18·9 %), ‘soft drinks’ (13·1 %) and ‘table sugar’ (11·1 %) made the greatest contributions to intakes of NMES. Interventions to reduce NMES intake should focus on limiting quantity and frequency of intake of these food groups.

There is an increasing body of evidence, including that from prospective population studies and epidemiological observational studies, suggesting a strong inverse relationship between increased consumption of wholegrain foods and reduced risk of CVD. This evidence has translated into specific dietary recommendations in the USA to consume at least three servings of whole grain per d, and has informed the development of specific health claims for wholegrain foods both in the USA and in Europe. Wholegrain foods are rich sources of many nutrients and phytochemicals, including complex carbohydrates, dietary fibre, minerals, vitamins, antioxidants and phyto-oestrogens such as lignans. Many of these components are lost from the grain during processing and although some may be replaced (such as in the mandatory fortification of white flour), this practice ignores the possible synergistic effects of the ‘natural’ constituents. The notion that wholegrain foods are simply a source of dietary fibre has been dispelled, although the additional components that contribute to the health benefits have not been clearly identified. In addition, the mechanisms by which wholegrain foods may have their effect are poorly understood. At present there are few strictly-controlled intervention studies that have confirmed a beneficial effect of increased consumption of wholegrain foods, demonstrated the level of consumption required to elicit a beneficial effect or provided evidence of modes of action. Although wholegrain foods are considered amongst the healthiest food choices available, their consumption falls well below current recommendations, which have been based mainly on epidemiological evidence. Well-controlled intervention studies are needed to provide more detailed mechanistic evidence to support the health claims and findings which can be used to develop effective public health strategies to promote whole-grain consumption.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the postprandial metabolism of two starches with contrasting rates of hydrolysis in vitro. Characterized using the Englyst method of in vitro starch classification, C*Set 06 598 contained predominantly rapidly digestible starch and C*Gel 04 201 contained predominantly slowly digestible starch. Each test starch, naturally enriched with 13C, was fed to ten healthy female volunteers as part of a moderate fat test meal (containing 75 g test starch and 21 g fat), in a double-blind randomized crossover design. The metabolic response to each starch was measured after an overnight fast, in an acute 6 h study, before and after 14 d of daily consumption of 75 g test starch. During each acute study, blood samples were taken at 15 min intervals for the first 2 h and at 30 min intervals for the remaining 4 h. Breath 13CO2 enrichment was measured at the same time points and indirect calorimetry was performed for 20 min every 40 min immediately before and throughout the study. Significantly more rapid, greater changes in postprandial plasma glucose, NEFA and serum insulin concentrations were observed after consumption of the rapidly digestible starch. Breath 13CO2 output over the first 3–4 h rose rapidly then began to decline following consumption of the rapidly digestible starch, but plateaued for the slowly digestible starch. The 14 d adaptation period did not affect any of the glycaemic or lipaemic variables but there was a reduction in postprandial plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 concentrations. These data confirm that starches characterized as predominantly rapidly digestible versus slowly digestible by the Englyst procedure provoke distinctly different patterns of metabolism postprandially.