1 This is also where the author has practical field experience. On the importance of context, see Dijkzeul, Dennis and Hilhorst, Dorothea, “Instrumentalisation of Aid in Humanitarian Crisis: Obstacle or Precondition for Cooperation?”, in Heins, Volker M., Koddenbrock, Kai and Unrau, Christine (eds), Humanitarianism and Challenges of Cooperation, Routledge, London and New York, 2016, p. 55Google Scholar.

2 See Thomas G. Weiss, “Humanitarianism's Contested Culture in War Zones”, in V. M. Heins, K. Koddenbrock and C. Unrau (eds), above note 1, p. 34. Weiss does not offer a definition of consequentialist ethics, but explains that consequentialist ethics involve judging humanitarianism “by consequences and not intentions, by the quality of results and impacts and not merely inputs and outputs” (p. 31), and “thinking about goals and roles, ends and means, results and impacts” (p. 33).

3 Dijkzeul and Hilhorst have recently noted that “the two different ethical approaches have always been used in the humanitarian field”; they offer the definitions of consequentialism as “an ethic that focuses more on the outcomes of action than on the purity of its intentions” and see the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) as operating in a “Dunantist vein” and following “a deontological ethic”, meaning “duty-bound to alleviate suffering and save lives”. D. Dijkzeul and D. Hilhorst, above note 1, p. 56.

4 Baron, Marcia W., “Kantian Ethics”, in Baron, Marcia W., Pettit, Philip and Slote, Michael (eds), Three Methods of Ethics: A Debate, Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, and Oxford, 1997, p. 18Google Scholar. For a general introduction, see Gensler, Harry J., Ethics: A Contemporary Introduction, 3rd ed., Routledge, London and New York, 2018, pp. 174–208Google Scholar.

5 Referring to the ICRC and MSF, “these two Dunantist organisations … see humanitarian aid as an independent and duty-based activity. Put differently, they follow deontological ethics”. Dijkzeul, Dennis, O'Neil, Ryan and Sezgin, Zeynep, “Conclusions: Convergence or Divergence?”, in Sezgin, Zeynep and Dijkzeul, Dennis (eds), The New Humanitarians in International Practice: Emerging Actors and Contested Principles, Routledge, London and New York, 2016, p. 340Google Scholar.

6 Chris Calhoun contrasts “value rationality” and “instrumental rationality” in “The Imperative to Reduce Suffering: Charity, Progress, and Emergencies in the Field of Humanitarian Action”, in Michael Barnett and Thomas G. Weiss (eds), Humanitarianism in Question: Politics, Power and Ethics, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, and London, 2008, pp. 89, 95.

7 Janice Gross Stein describes how the search for impact on an outcome level replaces an “ethic of obligation” with one of “consequence” in “Humanitarian Organisations: Accountable – Why, to Whom, for What, and How?”, in M. Barnett and T. G. Weiss (eds), above note 6, p. 134.

8 Michael Barnett and Jack Snyder contrast “duty to aid” with “ethic of consequences” in “The Grand Strategies of Humanitarianism”, in M. Barnett and T. G. Weiss (eds), above note 6, p. 144.

9 Dijkzeul, O'Neill and Sezgin mention that international NGOs can be “Dunantist or Wilsonian multi-mandate ones”; D. Dijkzeul, R. O'Neill and Z. Sezgin, above note 5, p. 353.

10 See, for example, the use of this term in J. G. Stein, above note 7, p. 130.

11 See, for example, the use of this term in D. Dijkzeul and D. Hilhorst, above note 1, p. 57.

12 Dijkzeul and Hilhorst also mention that “in practice, both ethics interact” and are not “mutually exclusive”; ibid., p. 57. As an example of a particular issue that will also be taken up later in this article, do deontological ethics imply a humanitarian imperative to act? For discussion on this, see Wortel, Eva, “Humanitarians and Their Moral Stance in War: The Underlying Values”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 91, No. 876, 2009CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 While not new at that point, the World Humanitarian Summit in 2016 gave key recent impetus to this movement to “transcend the humanitarian–development divide”. See United Nations General Assembly, One Humanity: Shared Responsibility. Report of the United Nations Secretary-General for the World Humanitarian Summit, New York, 2016, available at http://sgreport.worldhumanitariansummit.org/, p. 29, para. 110 (all internet references were accessed in January 2019).

14 Tyler, John E., Transparency in Philanthropy: An Analysis of Accountability, Fallacy, and Volunteerism, Philanthropy Roundtable's Principles of Philanthropy, 2013, pp. 66–67Google Scholar.

15 Peruzzotti, Enrique, “Civil Society, Representation and Accountability: Restating Current Debates on the Representativeness and Accountability of Civil Associations”, in Jordan, Lisa and Tuijl, Peter van (eds), NGO Accountability: Politics, Principles and Innovations, Earthscan, London and Sterling, VA, 2006, p. 52Google Scholar.

16 Slim, Hugo, “By What Authority? The Legitimacy and Accountability of Nongovernmental Organisations”, Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, March 2002Google Scholar, available at: www.gdrc.org/ngo/accountability/by-what-authority.html.

17 Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl, “Rights and Responsibilities in the Political Landscape of NGO Accountability: Introduction and Overview”, in L. Jordan and P. van Tuijl (eds), above note 15, p. 9.

18 J. E. Tyler, above note 14, Chap. II, section D, para. 1.

19 J. G. Stein, above note 7, p. 125.

20 Steve Charnovitz, “Accountability of Non-Governmental Organisations in Global Governance”, in L. Jordan and P. van Tuijl (eds), above note 15, p. 33.

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23 “New Public Management” refers to the introduction of management practices from the private to the public sector – for example, linking resource allocation to performance, target setting, and internal competition between service providers. This style of management was introduced into the public sector in the 1970s and 1980s. See Eyben, Rosalind, “Uncovering the Politics of Evidence and Results”, in Eyben, Rosalind, Guijit, Irene, Roche, Chris and Schutt, Cathy (eds), The Politics of Evidence and Results in International Development: Playing the Game to Change the Rules?, Practical Action Publishing, Rugby, 2015, Chap. 2, para. 20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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26 Volberg, Thorsten, Humanitarian Principles: Discourse on Neutrality and Independence of Humanitarian Aid, Verlag Dr. Mueller, Saarbrücken, 2007, p. 24Google Scholar.

27 The Sphere Project's handbook, first published in 2001 with an update in 2010, set a number of minimum standards that originally focused more on assistance provided in disasters, but was expanded to include other activities and other settings in later editions. See: www.sphereproject.org.

28 Agnes Callamard, “NGO Accountability and the Humanitarian Accountability Agenda: Towards a Transformative Agenda”, in L. Jordan and P. van Tuijl (eds), above note 15.

29 R. Eyben, above note 23, pp. 11–13.

30 Niland, Norah, Polastro, Riccardo, Donini, Antonio and Lee, Amra, Independent Whole of the System Review of Protection in the Context of Humanitarian Action, Norwegian Refugee Council and Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 2015, pp. 4–7Google Scholar, available at: https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/sites/default/files/independent_whole_of_system_protection_review_report_may_2015.pdf.

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35 See Dorothea Hilhorst and Eline Pereboom, “Multi-Mandate Organisations in Humanitarian Aid”, in Z. Sezgin and D. Dijkzeul (eds), above note 5.

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38 Ethical value here is not used in the same sense as in “value for money”, as used by some donors in recent years, which is about justifying the allocation of money through efficiently reaching impacts.

39 E. Wortel, above note 12, p. 783.

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41 M. Barnett, above note 22, pp. 216–218.

42 C. Calhoun, above note 6, pp. 89, 95, 97.

43 Michael Barnett and Jack Snyder, “The Grand Strategies of Humanitarianism”, in M. Barnett and T. G. Weiss (eds), above note 6, p. 144; J. G. Stein, above note 7, p. 134.

44 For use of the label “Wilsonian”, see Elhawary, Samir, “Mirror, Mirror, on the Wall: Stabilizers, Humanitarians and Clashes of Perception”, in Abu-Said, Caroline (ed.), In the Eyes of Others: How People in Crisis Perceive Humanitarian Aid, MSF and Humanitarian Outcomes, New York, 2012, p. 139Google Scholar. Also see M. Krause, above note 32, pp. 110–111, for use of the two labels, both referring back to Stoddard, Abby, “Humanitarian NGOs: Challenges and Trends”, in Macrae, Joanna and Hammer, Adele (eds), Humanitarian Action and the “Global War on Terror”: A Review of Trends and Issues, Humanitarian Policy Group (HPG) Report No. 14, Overseas Development Institute (ODI), London, 2003, pp. 25–36Google Scholar.

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47 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and ICRC, Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Disaster Relief, Geneva, 1994, available at: www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/publications/icrc-002-1067.pdf.

48 McGoldrick, Claudia, “The Future of Humanitarian Action: An ICRC Perspective”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 93, No. 884, 2011, pp. 978, 982CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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50 For a brief summary of how these principles are being challenged, see Wolf-Dieter Eberwein and Bob Reinalda, “A Brief History of Humanitarian Actors and Principles”, in Z. Sezgin and D. Dijkzeul (eds), above note 5, p. 50.

51 The ICRC generally maintains the relevance of all humanitarian principles, including neutrality. See, recently, Labbé, Jérémie and Daudin, Pascal, “Applying the Humanitarian Principles: Reflecting on the Experience of the ICRC”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 897/898, 2016Google Scholar.

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55 J. G. Stein, above note 7, p. 126.

56 Udo Reichhold and Andrea Binder, Scoping Study: What Works in Protection and How Do We Know?, Global Public Policy Institute, Berlin, 2013, p. 35, available at: www.gppi.net/publications/humanitarian-action/article/scoping-study-what-works-in-protection-and-how-do-we-know/; Slim, Hugo, Humanitarian Ethics: A Guide to the Morality of Aid in War and Disaster, Hurst & Company, London, 2015, p. 101Google Scholar.

57 Forsythe, David P., The Humanitarians: The International Committee of the Red Cross, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, p. 254CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 Sommaruga, Cornelio, “Humanity: Our Priority Now and Always. Response to ‘Principles, Politics and Humanitarian Action’”, Ethics and International Affairs, Vol. 13, 1999, p. 26CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The reference to dignity also appears in the definition of protection that the ICRC has used since 2008: see ICRC, “ICRC Protection Policy: Institutional Policy”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 90, No. 871, 2008, p. 752Google Scholar.

59 As quoted in ICRC, Professional Standards for Protection Work, 3rd ed., Geneva, 2018, p. 11Google Scholar; IASC, Inter-Agency Standing Committee Policy on Protection in Humanitarian Action, New York, 2016, p. 2Google Scholar, available at: https://tinyurl.com/y3xdozd2.

60 Ferris, Elisabeth G., The Politics of Protection: The Limits of Humanitarian Action, Brookings Institution Press, Washington, DC, 2011, p. 275Google Scholar; Barnett, Michael, Empire of Humanity: A History of Humanitarianism, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, and London, 2011, p. 195Google Scholar.

61 E. G. Ferris, above note 60, p. xii.

62 N. Niland et al., above note 30, p. 16.

63 The IASC definition says that protection activities are aimed at obtaining respect for the relevant laws, but stops short of spelling out from whom this respect is to be obtained. The ICRC definition clarifies: “Protection aims to ensure that authorities and other actors respect their obligations and the rights of individuals in order to preserve the safety, physical integrity and dignity of those affected by armed conflict and other situations of violence.” See ICRC, above note 58, p. 752.

64 Ibid., p. 752, footnote 2.

65 H. Slim and A. Bonwick, above note 53, p. 114.

66 U. Reichhold and A. Binder, above note 56, p. 49.

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68 On the humanitarian identity of increasingly present private military companies, see Jutta Joachim and Andrea Schneiker, “Humanitarian Action for Sale”, in Z. Sezgin and D. Dijkzeul (eds), above note 5, p. 203. Taking a more critical position on this enlarged understanding of who is a humanitarian actor, see M. Barnett, above note 22, Chap. 9.

69 E. G. Ferris, above note 60, p. 188.

70 Pictet, Jean, The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross: Commentary, Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva, 1970, p. 56Google Scholar.

71 Ryan O'Neill explains this in relation to Al-Shabab: see “Rebels without Borders: Armed Groups as Humanitarian Actors”, in Z. Sezgin and D. Dijkzeul (eds), above note 5, pp. 138–139.

72 For an argument that accepts the application of a humanitarian imperative, but also names related dilemmas, see Schweizer, Beat, “Humanitäre Dilemmata: Anspruch und Wirklichkeit der humanitären Prinzipien”, in Lieber, Jürgen and Dijkzeul, Dennis (eds), Handbuch Humanitäre Hilfe, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, 2013, pp. 333–349CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

73 H. Slim, above note 56, p. 3.

74 Terry, Fiona, Condemned to Repeat? The Paradox of Humanitarian Action, Cornell University Press, New York, 2002, pp. 238, 244Google Scholar.

75 For a discussion on how the actions of Henri Dunant cannot be seen as developing out of a categorical imperative (i.e., he did not have to act, but he chose to act voluntarily), see E. Wortel, above note 12, p. 783.

76 Ibid., p. 781.

77 J. Goodhand, above note 37, p. 260.

78 Bonino, Francesca, Evaluating Protection in Humanitarian Action: Issues and Challenges, Working Paper, ALNAP and ODI, London, 2014, p. 28Google Scholar, available at: http://www.alnap.org/resource/19237.

79 Miliband, David and Gurumurthy, Ravi, “Improving Humanitarian Aid: How to Make Relief More Efficient and Effective”, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 94, No. 4, 2015, p. 126Google Scholar.

80 M. Barnett, above note 22, p. 216.

81 D. Dijkzeul, D. Hilhorst and P. Walker, above note 33, p. S15.

82 H. Slim and A. Bonwick, above note 53, pp. 106–108.

83 U. Reichhold and A. Binder, above note 56, p. 8.

84 Abbott, Diane, “Doing ‘Incorrect’ Research: The Importance of the Subjective and the Personal in Researching Poverty ‘Footprints’”, in Thomas, Alan and Mohan, Giles (eds), Research Skills for Policy and Development: How to Find Out Fast, Sage, Los Angeles, CA, 2007, p. 212–213Google Scholar.

85 Apthorpe, Raymond, “Effective Aid: The Poetics of Some Aid Workers’ Angles on how Humanitarian Aid ‘Works’”, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 33, No. 8, 2012, p. 1554CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

86 van Mierop, Ed Schenkenberg, “Coming Clean on Neutrality and Independence: The Need to Assess the Application of Humanitarian Principles”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 897/898, 2016, p. 11Google Scholar.

87 F. Bonino, above note 78, p. 24.

88 U. Reichhold and A. Binder, above note 56, pp. 25, 32–35.

89 Ramalingam, Ben, Aid on the Edge of Chaos: Rethinking International Cooperation in a Complex World, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2013, pp. 107–111Google Scholar.

90 U. Reichhold and A. Binder, above note 56, p. 46. “Theory of change” refers to “a planning and evaluation method for social change”; it takes a more flexible and less rigid approach than, for example, the logical framework approach to explain how impact will be achieved. For more details, see S. J. Meharg (ed.), above note 54, p. 49.

91 U. Reichhold and A. Binder, above note 56, p. 40.

92 For the concept of accountability for “care and attention” but from development action, see C. D. Wraight, above note 46, p. 130.

93 On hopes placed in technological advances to increase accountability, see Kristin Bergtora Sandvik, “Stronger, Faster, Better: Three Logics of Humanitarian Futureproofing”, in V. M. Heins, K. Koddenbrock and C. Unrau (eds), above note 1, p. 131. On complexities in humanitarian technology, see K. L. Jacobsen, above note 31.

94 Judy El-Bushra, “Power, Agency and Identity: Turning Vicious Circles into Virtuous Ones”, in H. Yanacopulos and J. Hanlon (eds), above note 37, p. 210.

95 For considerations on power interactions within groups of beneficiaries spoken to by aid organizations – here as part of a participatory approach, but applicable also to protection activities where similar group interviews are frequently used, and also outside a conflict setting – and mentioning the inherent risks and hence responsibilities of aid actors to manage these, see Linda Mayoux and Hazel Johnson, “Investigation as Empowerment: Using Participatory Methods”, in A. Thomas and G. Mohan (eds), above note 84, especially p. 207.

96 ICRC, above note 59, pp. 27–28.

97 Ibid., pp. 103–140.

98 Redfield, Peter, “The Impossible Problem of Neutrality”, in Redfield, Peter and Bornstein, Erica (eds), Forces of Compassion: Humanitarianism between Ethics and Politics, SAR Press, Santa Fe, NM, 2010, pp. 66–67Google Scholar.

99 N. Niland et al., above note 30, p. 49.

100 E. Wortel, above note 12, p. 789; M. DuBois, above note 67, pp. 7–9.

101 Kai Koddenbrock, “More than Morals: Making Sense of the Rise of Humanitarian Aid Organisations”, in V. M. Heins, K. Koddenbrock and C. Unrau (eds), above note 1, p. 93.

102 And possibly also invisible for academia: T. G. Weiss, for example, does not see internal accountability taking place, in “Humanitarianism's Contested Culture”, above note 2, p. 27.

103 ICRC, Annual Report 2013 for Syrian Arab Republic, Geneva, 2014, available at: www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/annual-report/current/icrc-annual-report-syria.pdf.

104 For more about the ICRC's neutrality stance, see Terry, Fiona, “The International Committee of the Red Cross in Afghanistan: Reasserting the Neutrality of Humanitarian Action”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 93, No. 881, 2011CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

105 D. Dijkzeul and D. Hilhorst, above note 1, p. 54.

106 T. G. Weiss, above note 2, p. 30.

107 E. Wortel, above note 12, p. 781.

108 H. Slim, above note 56, p. 68.

109 Bennett, Christina, Time to Let Go: Remarking Humanitarian Action for the Modern Era, ODI and HPG, 2016, p. 69Google Scholar, available at: www.odi.org/hpg/remake-aid. For the concrete example of this problematic facing the ICRC in Afghanistan, see F. Terry, above note 104, p. 176.

110 Volker M. Heins and Christine Unrau, “Introduction: Cultures of Humanitarianism, Old and New”, in V. M. Heins, K. Koddenbrock and C. Unrau (eds), above note 1, p. 4.

111 J. Labbé and P. Daudin, above note 51, pp. 24–25.

112 For a description of the term “humanitarian space” and the idea of “humanitarian access” contained within it, see D. Hilhorst and E. Pereboom, above note 35, p. 87.

113 T. G. Weiss, above note 2, p. 18; K. B. Sandvik, above note 93, p. 100.

114 Fiona Terry calls listening to predicaments of beneficiaries a “first step to really respecting their dignity”: see F. Terry, above note 74, p. 242.

115 To expand on this, without direct access, humanitarian actors rely on information from other sources. As good and reliable as these may be, they may be biased in some way or another, and not sufficiently reflective of the needs and situations of different groups (such as tribes, genders or castes) of the affected population. This is not to suggest that such risks cannot be mitigated (for example, by triangulating different sources) or that having direct access is the ultimate panacea to such risks, which still need mitigating. The point here is that direct access in itself is one key mitigating factor to reduce the risk of misconceptions that could lead to discriminatory or non-impartial action.

116 For the importance of altruism and humanity as well as professionalism in staff, see G. Carbonnier, above note 45, pp. 199–200; for a call for “appropriate care and attention” by development actors, as a key criteria for evaluation of their efforts, see C. D. Wraight, above note 46, p. 130.

117 For examples, see V. M. Heins and C. Unrau, above note 110, p. 4.

118 For claims of assaults, kidnappings and killings of humanitarian personnel increasing, see Ibid., p. 6.

119 For a discussion of the expansion of multi-mandate actors and issues that this poses, see D. Hilhorst and E. Pereboom, above note 35, p. 88.

120 See definition by W.-E. Eberwein and B. Reinalda, above note 50, p. 26: “Humanitarian organizations in a wider sense are those active in the domain of social welfare, such as development in general, the environment, peace and human rights.”

121 K. B. Sandvik, above note 93, p. 101.

122 Mackintosh, Kate, “Reclaiming Protection as a Humanitarian Goal: Fodder for the Faint-Hearted Aid-Worker”, International Legal Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2010, p. 396Google Scholar.

123 U. Reichhold and A. Binder, above note 56, p. 34.

124 On the possibility and necessity of both ethical strands, even within one organization, see D. Dijkzeul and D. Hilhorst, above note 1, pp. 57–59.

125 Wider as in “improving people's lives” and more restrictive as in “saving lives”: see W.-E. Eberwein and B. Reinalda, above note 50, p. 25.

126 E. Schenkenberg van Mierop, above note 86.

127 Research by author for Open University course (MSc in development management), “Accountability in Humanitarian versus Development Management: Example of Protection Activities in Conflict Settings”, April 2015. On file with author.

128 C. D. Wraight, above note 46, pp. 88–91: G. Carbonnier, above note 45, p. 198.

129 Marie Juul Petersen, “International Muslim NGOs: ‘Added Value’ or an Echo of Western Principles and Donor Wishes?”, in Z. Sezgin and D. Dijkzeul (eds), above note 5, p. 266, quotes a staff member from a Muslim NGO differentiating between “the traditional and the modern” Islamic organization, with the traditional one depending only on “personal accountability. It's about you as a spiritual person, about whether you are trustworthy or not. It's not about the system; it's about the person.”

130 D. P. Forsythe, above note 57, p. 44; E. Wortel, above note 12, p. 793.

131 Also calling for more documentation, see T. G. Weiss, above note 2, p. 30.

132 ICRC delegate Phillippe Gaillard, quoted in Rieff, David, A Bed for the Night: Humanitarianism in Crisis, Vintage, London, 2002, p. 178Google Scholar.

133 Erica Bornstein and Peter Redfield, “An Introduction to the Anthropology of Humanitarianism”, in E. Bornstein and P. Redfield (eds), above note 98, p. 6.

134 E. O'Gorman, above note 25, p. 62.

135 M. Barnett, above note 22, p. 217.

136 J. Pictet, above note 70, pp. 24–25.

137 H. Slim, above note 56, pp. 43, 162.

138 C. D. Wraight, above note 46, p. 130.

139 Xabier Etxeberria, “The Ethical Framework of Humanitarian Action”, in Humanitarian Studies Unit (ed.), above note 21, p. 87.

140 See, for example, T. G. Weiss, above note 2, p. 33; Didier Fassin, “Noli me Tangere: The Moral Untouchability of Humanitarianism”, in E. Bornstein and P. Redfield (eds), above note 98, p. 36; Gordon, Stuart and Donini, Antonio, “Romancing Principles and Human Rights: Are Humanitarian Principles Salvageable?”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 897/989, 2016, p. 15Google Scholar.

141 R. Apthorpe, above note 85, p. 1550.

142 Gentile, Pierre, “Humanitarian Organisations Involved in Protection Activities: A Story of Soul-Searching and Professionalization”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 93, No. 884, 2011CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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144 For suggestions of such potential scientific approaches, see D. Dijkzeul, D. Hilhorst and P. Walker, above note 33, pp. S7–S13.

145 B. Ramalingam, above note 89, p. 107.

146 See J. Pictet, above note 70, p. 55: “If, in the general interest of everyone, we wish to have Red Cross institutions continue their work in occupied territories, their agents must, through irreproachable conduct, continue to maintain the full confidence of the authorities. One cannot, at the same time, serve the Red Cross and fight. One must choose.” See also p. 60 on choosing between justice and charity.