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Becoming a Correspondent: The Foundations of New Merchant Relationships in Early Modern French Trade (1730–1820)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 November 2018

ARNAUD BARTOLOMEI ,
CLAIRE LEMERCIER Open the ORCID record for CLAIRE LEMERCIER [Opens in a new window] ,
VIERA REBOLLEDO-DHUIN  and
NADÈGE SOUGY
ARNAUD BARTOLOMEI
Affiliation:
Arnaud Bartolomei, a specialist of the history of European merchants in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, is an associate professor at the University of Nice. Université Côte d’Azur— CMMC, UFR LASH, 98 boulevard Édouard-Herriot, BP 3209, 06204Nice, France. E-mail: Arnaud.BARTOLOMEI@univ-cotedazur.fr
CLAIRE LEMERCIER
Affiliation:
Claire Lemercier, a specialist of the history of French economic institutions, is a research professor at the French National Center for Scientific Research, in the Center for the Sociology of Organizations. CSO, 19 rue Amélie, 75007Paris, France. E-mail: claire.lemercier@sciencespo.fr
VIERA REBOLLEDO-DHUIN
Affiliation:
Viera Rebolledo-Dhuin is a doctor in history and a specialist of book history, the history of commercial credit, and bankruptcies in nineteenth-century Paris. Université de Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, CHCSC, 47 boulevard Vauban, 78047Guyancourt Cedex, France. E-mail: viera.rebolledo-dhuin@uvsq.fr
NADÈGE SOUGY
Affiliation:
Nadège Sougy is a doctor in history and a specialist of French and Swiss industries in the nineteenth century. 1 avenue de Chevêne, 74000Annecy, France. E-mail: nadege.sougy@unidistance.ch
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Abstract

This article discusses the relational and rhetorical foundations of more than 300 first letters sent in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries by merchant or banking houses based in Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Americas to two prominent French firms: Roux Brothers and Greffulhe Montz & Cie. We used a quantitative analysis of qualitative aspects of first letters to go beyond the standard opposition between premodern personal exchanges and modern impersonal transactions. The expansion of commercial networks during the period under analysis is often believed to have relied on families and ethnic networks and on explicit recommendations worded in the formulas prescribed in merchant manuals. However, most first letters did not use such resources. In many cases, commercial operations began thanks to a mutual acquaintance but without a formal recommendation. This was in fact the norm in the eighteenth century—and an underestimated foundation of the expansion of European commercial networks. In the early nineteenth century, this norm became less prevalent: it was replaced by diverse relational and rhetorical strategies, from recommendations to prospective letters dispensing with any mention of relationships. Whether before or after 1800, the relational and rhetorical resources displayed in letters did not systematically influence the sender’s chances of becoming a correspondent; instead, they depended on the receiving firm’s commercial strategy.

Type
Article
Information
Enterprise & Society , Volume 20 , Issue 3 , September 2019 , pp. 533 - 574
Copyright
Copyright © The Author 2018. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved. 

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Footnotes

This article is part of a wider research project, Fiduciae, funded by the French National Agency for Research, and led by Arnaud Bartolomei (see http://cmmc-nice.fr/recherches-2/programmes-finances-2/fiduciae/). Other members of the Fiduciae team, along with the authors, directly participated in the collection of the data from archival material. The authors thank Thierry Allain, Marguerite Martin, Thomas Mollanger, Matthieu de Oliveira, and Sylvie Vabre for this contribution. The authors wish to thank the anonymous reviewers; as well as the participants of Fiduciae workshops in Paris, Lille, and Nice; in the Center for the Sociology of Organizations and Laboratoire de recherche historique Rhône-Alpes/Triangle seminars; and in the Toulouse Business School conference, “Networks and Finance in the Long Term”; and especially Guillaume Calafat, Veronica Aoki Santarosa, Alina Surubaru, and Francesca Trivellato for helpful comments. Valentine Leys-Legoupil provided excellent English editing.

References

Bibliography of Works Cited

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Da Silva, José Gentil. Marchandises et finances. Lettres de Lisbonne, 1563–1578. Paris: SEVPEN, 1959.Google Scholar
Degranges, Edmond. Traité de correspondance commerciale. Paris: Langlois et Leclercq, 1866.Google Scholar
Fontaine, Laurence. The Moral Economy. Poverty, Credit and Thrust in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Gervais, Pierre, Lemarchand, Yannick, and Margairaz, Dominique, eds. Merchants and Profit in the Age of Commerce, 1680–1830. London: Pickering & Chatto Publishers, 2014.Google Scholar
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Bartolomei, Arnaud. “Les réseaux négociants de trois maisons huguenotes de Cadix, à la fin du XVIIIe siècle : des réseaux languedociens, protestants ou français?” Liame, no. 25 (2012): online.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartolomei, Arnaud, Éloire, Fabien, Lemercier, Claire, de Oliveira, Matthieu, and Sougy, Nadège. “L’encastrement des relations entre marchands en France (1750–1850). Une révolution dans le monde du commerce?” Annales HSS 72, no. 2 (2017): 425–460 (English version forthcoming).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartolomei, Arnaud, and Lemercier, Claire. “Travelling Salesmen as Agents of Modernity in France (18th to 20th Centuries).” Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte /Journal of Business History 59, no. 2 (2014): 135–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchnea, Emily. “Networks and Clusters in Business History.” In The Routledge Companion to Business History, edited by Wilson, John F., Toms, Steven, de Jong, Abe, and Buchnea, Emily, 259-273. London: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Buti, Gilbert. “Marseille, la péninsule Ibérique et les empires américains (1659–1793). ‘Le soleil des affaires se lève aussi à l’Ouest.’” Revue d’histoire maritime, no. 13 (2011): 211–232.Google Scholar
Chamboredon, Robert. “Toutes antennes déployées. Les enseignements de la correspondance des frères Fornier entre Nîmes et Cadix (1748-1786).” Rives méditerranéennes, no. 27 (2007): 65–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delobette, Édouard. Ces ‘Messieurs du Havre.’ Négociants, commissionnaires et armateurs de 1680 à 1830. PhD dissertation, History, Université de Caen, 2005.Google Scholar
Ditz, Toby L. “Formative Ventures: Eighteenth-Century Commercial Letters and the Articulation of Experience.” In Epistolary Selves. Letters and Letter-Writers, 1600–1945, edited by Earle, Rebecca, 59–78. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1999.Google Scholar
Ditz, Toby L. “Secret Selves, Credible Personas: The Problematics of Trust and Public Display in the Writing of Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia Merchants.” In Possible Pasts: Becoming Colonial in Early America, edited by George, Robert Blair St., 219–242. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Forestier, Albane. “Risk, Kinship and Personal Relationships in Late Eighteenth-Century West Indian Trade: The Commercial Network of Tobin & Pinney.” Business History 52, no. 6 (2010): 912–931.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gervais, Pierre. “Early Modern Merchant Strategies and the Historicization of Market Practices.” Economic Sociology: The European Electronic Newsletter 15, no. 3 (2014): 19–29.Google Scholar
Gervais, Pierre. “Mercantile Credit and Trading Rings in the Eighteenth Century.” Annales HSS 67, no. 4 (2012): 731–763.Google Scholar
Granovetter, Mark S. “The Strength of Weak Ties.” American Journal of Sociology 78 no. 6 (1973): 1360–1380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grossetti, Michel. “Réseaux sociaux et ressources de médiation dans l’activité économique.” Sciences de la société, no. 73 (2008): 83–104.Google Scholar
Hancock, David. “The Trouble with Networks: Managing the Scots’ Early-Modern Madeira Trade.” Business History Review 79, no. 3 (2005): 467–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambert, Anne. Écritures du commerce. La correspondance au fondement des transactions Ruiz-Bonvisi, 1580–1590. PhD dissertation, École des Chartes, 2010.Google Scholar
Lamikiz, Xabier. “Social Capital, Networks and Trust in Early Modern Long-Distance Trade: A Critical Appraisal.” In Merchants and Trade Networks in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 1550–1800: Connectors of Commercial Maritime Systems, edited by Sánchez, Manuel Herrero and Kaps, Klemens, 39–61. London: Routledge, 2016.Google Scholar
Lamoreaux, Naomi, and Rosenthal, Jean-Laurent. “Legal Regime and Business’s Organizational Choice: A Comparison of France and the United States During the Era of Industrialization.” American Law and Economics Review 7 (2005): 28–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemercier, Claire. “Formal Network Methods in History: Why and How?” In Social Networks, Political Institutions, and Rural Societies, edited by Fertig, Georg, 281–310. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Publishers, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Llorca-Jaña, Manuel. “Shaping Globalization: London’s Merchant Bankers in the Early Nineteenth Century.” Business History Review 88, no. 3 (2014): 469–495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupo, Sébastien. “La prudence et le réseau. Permanence et rôle de la méfiance dans le fonctionnement de la régie Garavaque et Cusson de Smyrne (1759–1772).” Tracés, no. 31 (2016): 129–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupo, Sébastien. Révolution(s) d’échelles: Le marché levantin et la crise du commerce marseillais au miroir des maisons Roux et de leurs relais à Smyrne (1740–1787) . PhD dissertation, History, Aix-Marseille Université, 2015.Google Scholar
Marzagalli, Silvia. “Establishing Transatlantic Trade Networks in Time of War: Bordeaux and the United States, 1793–1815.” Business History Review 79, no. 4 (2005): 811–844.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCusker, John J. “The Demise of Distance: The Business Press and the Origins of the Information Revolution in the Early Modern Atlantic World.” American Historical Review 110, no. 2 (2005): 295–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Kenneth. “Business Networks in the British Export Trade to North America, 1750–1800.” In The Early Modern Atlantic Economy, edited by McCusker, John J. and Morgan, Kenneth, 36–62. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Pearson, Robin, and Richardson, David. “Business Networking in the Industrial Revolution.” Economic History Review 54, no. 4 (2001): 657–679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popp, Andrew. “Building the Market: John Shaw of Wolverhampton and Commercial Travelling in Early Nineteenth-Century England.” Business History 49, no. 3 (2007): 321–347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ribeiro, Ana Sofia. “The Evolution of Norms in Trade and Financial Networks in the First Global Age: The Case of Simon Ruiz’s Network.” In Beyond Empires. Global, Self-Organizing, Cross-Imperial Networks, 1500–1800, edited by Antunes, Cátia and Polónia, Amélia, 12–40. Leiden: Brill, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Surubaru, Alina. “Les producteurs roumains de l’habillement à la recherche de clients: une analyse sociologique des rencontres d’affaires.” Sociologie du Travail 54, no. 4 (2012): 457–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uzzi, Brian. “Social Structure and Competition in Interfirm Networks: The Paradox of Embeddedness.” Administrative Science Quarterly 42, no. 1 (1997): 35–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Young, Eric. “Social Networks: A Final Comment.” In Redes y negocios globales en el mundo ibérico, siglos 16–18, edited by Bötcher, Niklaus, Hausberger, Bernd, and Ibarra, Antonio, 289–309. México: El Colegio de México, 2011.Google Scholar
Wilson, John F., and Popp., Andrew “Business Networking in the Industrial Revolution: Some Comments.” Economic History Review 56, no. 2 (2003): 355–361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angiolini, Franco, and Roche, Daniel, eds. Cultures et formations négociantes dans l’Europe moderne . Paris: Éditions de l’EHESS, 1995.Google Scholar
Antonetti, Guy. Une maison de banque à Paris au XVIIIe siècle, Greffulhe Montz et Cie (1789–1793). Paris: Éd. Cujas, 1963.Google Scholar
Brée, Paul. Traité de correspondance commerciale, contenant des modèles et des formules épistolaires pour tous les cas qui se présentent dans les opérations de commerce, avec des notions générales et particulières sur leur emploi. Leipzig: Librairie de Baumgartner, 1850.Google Scholar
Carrière, Charles. Négociants marseillais au XVIIIe siècle: contribution à l’étude des économies maritimes. 2 vol. Marseille: Institut historique de Provence, 1973.Google Scholar
Chandler, Alfred D. The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business. Cambridge, MA.: Belknap Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Chapman, Stanley. The Rise of Merchant Banking. London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1984.Google Scholar
Clément, Marie. L’art de la correspondance commerciale, précédé d’un traité de style épistolaire et suivi d’un vocabulaire des termes du commerce. Paris: Clément, 1870.Google Scholar
Da Silva, José Gentil. Marchandises et finances. Lettres de Lisbonne, 1563–1578. Paris: SEVPEN, 1959.Google Scholar
Degranges, Edmond. Traité de correspondance commerciale. Paris: Langlois et Leclercq, 1866.Google Scholar
Fontaine, Laurence. The Moral Economy. Poverty, Credit and Thrust in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Gervais, Pierre, Lemarchand, Yannick, and Margairaz, Dominique, eds. Merchants and Profit in the Age of Commerce, 1680–1830. London: Pickering & Chatto Publishers, 2014.Google Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. The British-Atlantic Trading Community 1760–1810. Men, Women and the Distribution of Goods. Leiden: Brill, 2006.Google Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “Merely for Money”? Business Culture in the British Atlantic, 1750–1815. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirsch, Jean-Pierre. Les deux rêves du commerce. Entreprise et institution dans la région lilloise, 1780–1860. Paris: Éditions de l’École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 1991.Google Scholar
Jones, Geoffrey. Merchants to Multinationals. British Trading Companies in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, Amalia D. A Revolution in Commerce: The Parisian Merchant Court and the Rise of Commercial Society in Eighteenth-Century France. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Lamikiz, Xabier. Trade and Trust in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World: Spanish Merchants and Their Overseas Networks. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Lüthy, Herbert. La banque protestante en France, de la révocation de l’Edit de Nantes à la Révolution. Tome II : De la Banque aux Finances (1730–1794). Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N, 1961.Google Scholar
Margairaz, Dominique, and Minard, Philippe, eds. L’information économique XVIe-XIXe siècle: journées d’études du 21 juin 2004 et du 25 avril 2006. Paris: Comité pour l’histoire économique et financière de la France, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marzagalli, Silvia. Bordeaux et les États-Unis, 1776–1815. Politique et stratégies négociantes dans la genèse d’un réseau commercial. Geneva: Droz, 2015.Google Scholar
Matringe, Nadia. La Banque en Renaissance. Les Salviati et la place de Lyon au milieu du XVIe siècle. Rennes, France: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
North, Douglass C. Understanding the Process of Economic Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivellato, Francesca. The Familiarity of Strangers: The Sephardic Diaspora, Livorno, and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Vanneste, Tijl. Global Trade and Commercial Networks: Eighteenth-Century Diamond Merchants. London: Pickering & Chatto, 2011.Google Scholar
Vázquez de Prada, Valentín. Lettres marchandes d’Anvers. Paris: SEVPEN, 1960.Google Scholar
Bartolomei, Arnaud. “La publication de l’information commerciale à Marseille et Cadix (1780-1820). La fin des réseaux marchands?” Rives méditerranéennes, no. 27 (2007): 85–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartolomei, Arnaud. “Les réseaux négociants de trois maisons huguenotes de Cadix, à la fin du XVIIIe siècle : des réseaux languedociens, protestants ou français?” Liame, no. 25 (2012): online.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartolomei, Arnaud, Éloire, Fabien, Lemercier, Claire, de Oliveira, Matthieu, and Sougy, Nadège. “L’encastrement des relations entre marchands en France (1750–1850). Une révolution dans le monde du commerce?” Annales HSS 72, no. 2 (2017): 425–460 (English version forthcoming).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartolomei, Arnaud, and Lemercier, Claire. “Travelling Salesmen as Agents of Modernity in France (18th to 20th Centuries).” Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte /Journal of Business History 59, no. 2 (2014): 135–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchnea, Emily. “Networks and Clusters in Business History.” In The Routledge Companion to Business History, edited by Wilson, John F., Toms, Steven, de Jong, Abe, and Buchnea, Emily, 259-273. London: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Buti, Gilbert. “Marseille, la péninsule Ibérique et les empires américains (1659–1793). ‘Le soleil des affaires se lève aussi à l’Ouest.’” Revue d’histoire maritime, no. 13 (2011): 211–232.Google Scholar
Chamboredon, Robert. “Toutes antennes déployées. Les enseignements de la correspondance des frères Fornier entre Nîmes et Cadix (1748-1786).” Rives méditerranéennes, no. 27 (2007): 65–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delobette, Édouard. Ces ‘Messieurs du Havre.’ Négociants, commissionnaires et armateurs de 1680 à 1830. PhD dissertation, History, Université de Caen, 2005.Google Scholar
Ditz, Toby L. “Formative Ventures: Eighteenth-Century Commercial Letters and the Articulation of Experience.” In Epistolary Selves. Letters and Letter-Writers, 1600–1945, edited by Earle, Rebecca, 59–78. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1999.Google Scholar
Ditz, Toby L. “Secret Selves, Credible Personas: The Problematics of Trust and Public Display in the Writing of Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia Merchants.” In Possible Pasts: Becoming Colonial in Early America, edited by George, Robert Blair St., 219–242. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Forestier, Albane. “Risk, Kinship and Personal Relationships in Late Eighteenth-Century West Indian Trade: The Commercial Network of Tobin & Pinney.” Business History 52, no. 6 (2010): 912–931.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gervais, Pierre. “Early Modern Merchant Strategies and the Historicization of Market Practices.” Economic Sociology: The European Electronic Newsletter 15, no. 3 (2014): 19–29.Google Scholar
Gervais, Pierre. “Mercantile Credit and Trading Rings in the Eighteenth Century.” Annales HSS 67, no. 4 (2012): 731–763.Google Scholar
Granovetter, Mark S. “The Strength of Weak Ties.” American Journal of Sociology 78 no. 6 (1973): 1360–1380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grossetti, Michel. “Réseaux sociaux et ressources de médiation dans l’activité économique.” Sciences de la société, no. 73 (2008): 83–104.Google Scholar
Hancock, David. “The Trouble with Networks: Managing the Scots’ Early-Modern Madeira Trade.” Business History Review 79, no. 3 (2005): 467–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambert, Anne. Écritures du commerce. La correspondance au fondement des transactions Ruiz-Bonvisi, 1580–1590. PhD dissertation, École des Chartes, 2010.Google Scholar
Lamikiz, Xabier. “Social Capital, Networks and Trust in Early Modern Long-Distance Trade: A Critical Appraisal.” In Merchants and Trade Networks in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 1550–1800: Connectors of Commercial Maritime Systems, edited by Sánchez, Manuel Herrero and Kaps, Klemens, 39–61. London: Routledge, 2016.Google Scholar
Lamoreaux, Naomi, and Rosenthal, Jean-Laurent. “Legal Regime and Business’s Organizational Choice: A Comparison of France and the United States During the Era of Industrialization.” American Law and Economics Review 7 (2005): 28–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemercier, Claire. “Formal Network Methods in History: Why and How?” In Social Networks, Political Institutions, and Rural Societies, edited by Fertig, Georg, 281–310. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Publishers, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Llorca-Jaña, Manuel. “Shaping Globalization: London’s Merchant Bankers in the Early Nineteenth Century.” Business History Review 88, no. 3 (2014): 469–495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupo, Sébastien. “La prudence et le réseau. Permanence et rôle de la méfiance dans le fonctionnement de la régie Garavaque et Cusson de Smyrne (1759–1772).” Tracés, no. 31 (2016): 129–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupo, Sébastien. Révolution(s) d’échelles: Le marché levantin et la crise du commerce marseillais au miroir des maisons Roux et de leurs relais à Smyrne (1740–1787) . PhD dissertation, History, Aix-Marseille Université, 2015.Google Scholar
Marzagalli, Silvia. “Establishing Transatlantic Trade Networks in Time of War: Bordeaux and the United States, 1793–1815.” Business History Review 79, no. 4 (2005): 811–844.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCusker, John J. “The Demise of Distance: The Business Press and the Origins of the Information Revolution in the Early Modern Atlantic World.” American Historical Review 110, no. 2 (2005): 295–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Kenneth. “Business Networks in the British Export Trade to North America, 1750–1800.” In The Early Modern Atlantic Economy, edited by McCusker, John J. and Morgan, Kenneth, 36–62. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Pearson, Robin, and Richardson, David. “Business Networking in the Industrial Revolution.” Economic History Review 54, no. 4 (2001): 657–679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popp, Andrew. “Building the Market: John Shaw of Wolverhampton and Commercial Travelling in Early Nineteenth-Century England.” Business History 49, no. 3 (2007): 321–347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ribeiro, Ana Sofia. “The Evolution of Norms in Trade and Financial Networks in the First Global Age: The Case of Simon Ruiz’s Network.” In Beyond Empires. Global, Self-Organizing, Cross-Imperial Networks, 1500–1800, edited by Antunes, Cátia and Polónia, Amélia, 12–40. Leiden: Brill, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Surubaru, Alina. “Les producteurs roumains de l’habillement à la recherche de clients: une analyse sociologique des rencontres d’affaires.” Sociologie du Travail 54, no. 4 (2012): 457–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uzzi, Brian. “Social Structure and Competition in Interfirm Networks: The Paradox of Embeddedness.” Administrative Science Quarterly 42, no. 1 (1997): 35–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Young, Eric. “Social Networks: A Final Comment.” In Redes y negocios globales en el mundo ibérico, siglos 16–18, edited by Bötcher, Niklaus, Hausberger, Bernd, and Ibarra, Antonio, 289–309. México: El Colegio de México, 2011.Google Scholar
Wilson, John F., and Popp., Andrew “Business Networking in the Industrial Revolution: Some Comments.” Economic History Review 56, no. 2 (2003): 355–361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar