ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES

To evaluate the impact of active learning activities on student learning, I incorporated six common active learning techniques into an introductory, writing-intensive seminar for first-year students focusing on globalization: simulations, case studies, enhanced lectures, large group discussion, small group work, and in-class writing. I taught four sections of this course (with 14 to 16 students) at two private, selective, small liberal arts colleges between September 2007 and December 2010. I invited students to complete an anonymous survey about their learning preferences and satisfaction with course activities at midterm and at the end of the semester. Asking students to reflect on their preferred ways of learning and satisfaction with class activities does not directly measure either students' learning styles or the effect of active learning strategies on student learning. However, it helps us understand the impact these activities have on students' perceptions of what they have learned and which techniques they believe helped them learn. Because students' perceptions of their learning are linked to their learning outcomes, examining students' perceptions has value (López-Pérez, Pérez-López, and Rodríguez-Ariza Reference López-Pérez, Pérez-López and Rodríguez-Ariza2011).

This study was not conducted at institutions typical of American higher education system; private, four-year, not-for-profit institutions enroll only 14% of all tertiary students in the United States, and small liberal arts college are a small subset of this group. However, comparing 2010–11 statistics from both institutions' Common Data Set to statistics from all undergraduate students in the United States reveals some commonalities. Compared to the national average, both institutions had a similar or lesser percentage of white students (63%), both had a similar or greater percentage of international students (3.5%), and whereas one of the institutions was a women's college, the other had only a somewhat lower percentage of women (57%); the Common Data Set does not give any information about students' income level or age (US Department of Education 2012: Institute of International Education 2011). Thus, the student body at these two schools is somewhat representative of students studying at all US institutions of higher education.

LEARNING STYLES ENGAGED BY ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES

The impact of learning styles on student achievement has been explored in a wide range of postsecondary education fields, from biology to economics to law (e.g., Bonwell and Eison Reference Bonwell and Eison1991; Dunn Reference Dunn, Dunn and Griggs2000). Although learning styles are not mutually exclusive and students can—and do—learn in many ways, students learn most easily when they are taught in ways that complement their preferred learning styles.

Although the many learning styles inventories have important differences in how individuals' many discrete learning preferences are classified into their overall learning styles, these inventories also have important commonalities (Dunn Reference Dunn, Dunn and Griggs2000, 6). Here I focus on two key dimensions: preferred learning environment and preferred learning medium. Looking at learning environment, individuals learn best in either social situations, where they explore new material with others, or in solitary situations, where they reflect on their own. Looking at learning medium, individuals learn best when they are exposed to new material visually, in graphs or diagrams, verbally, via written or spoken words, and when they can interact physically, through movement or touch. As shown in table 1, all six of these active learning activities appeal to students with a range of learning styles.

Table 1 Active Learning Strategies Classified by Learning Environment and Learning Medium

Although millennials, the majority of our students, are technologically adept (Taylor and Keeter Reference Taylor and Keeter2010), this study did not address the role of technology. However, technology can help facilitate active learning activities, from using listervs and instant messaging in a simulation (Brynen Reference Brynen2010) to creating a fact-checking blog for an election (Bardwell Reference Bardwell2011). Next, I examine the learning styles most engaged by these six activities and describe how I incorporated each activity into my course.

Simulations can take place in a single class or several classes, and students sometimes prepare, in advance, an outline, statement, or briefing paper (e.g., Fliter Reference Fliter2009; Loggins Reference Loggins2009). These exercises are appropriate for smaller classes of up to 35 students (e.g., Baranowski Reference Baranowski2006; Rinfret Reference Rinfret2012). For larger classes, online synchronous or asynchronous activities can be used (e.g., Bernstein and Meizlish Reference Bernstein and Meizlish2003; Coffey, Miller, and Feuerstein Reference Coffey, Miller and Feuerstein2011), activities can be incorporated into discussion sections (Oros Reference Oros2007), several students could be assigned to play an individual role (Wedig Reference Wedig2010), or some students could serve as observers (Baylouny Reference Baylouny2009). Role plays appeal to social learners, verbal learners, and, to some extent, physical learners. In this course, students engaged in two simulations, each during a single class period; debriefing generally continued into the next session. The first simulation was a bilateral trade negotiation, and the second was a policy roundtable about the future of globalization.

Like role plays, case studies ask students to explore a particular situation. Whereas simulations ask students to take on the roles of key actors, a case study is “an intensive study of a single unit for the purpose of understanding a larger class of (similar) units” (Gerring Reference Gerring2004, 342). Case studies help students grapple with complex issues, examine interrelated processes, discuss decision making in difficult issue areas, and engage in critical thinking and analysis (Bean Reference Bean2011, 159; Bonwell and Eison Reference Bonwell and Eison1991, 38–40). Case studies appeal to verbal, solitary, and social learners: solitary learners can digest the materials on their own, whereas social learners can talk through the case with classmates. In this course, students studied globalization through three extended case studies: fast food, film, and climate change.

Large group discussion promotes student learning in a variety of ways. Discussion has many potential benefits for students: to share their voice, communicate their ideas, connect to a topic, explore diverse perspectives, recognize their assumptions, listen attentively, collaborate effectively, synthesize information, and tolerate ambiguity (Brookfield and Preskill Reference Brookfield and Preskill2005, 21–22). However, all students must contribute to discussions, not only a few (Bean Reference Bean2011, 205–10). Discussion seems ideally suited to political science courses as it encourages students to respect others' opinions, grapple with complexity, and understand that often no one response is correct. Large group discussion appeals to students who prefer social and verbal learning, and, if someone takes notes on the board to share with others, it can also engage visual learners. In this course, large group discussion was the most common activity. In a single class, for instance, I would ask students to summarize and reflect on key arguments, respond to open-ended questions, and contrast the views of a specific author with their own.

Although simulations, case studies, and large group discussion take considerable time to plan and carry out, enhanced lectures may be more easily incorporated, particularly in larger classes. Unlike traditional lectures, enhanced lectures are broken up by active learning activities. There are many ways to punctuate a lecture, such as giving students the opportunity ask questions, pausing to let students compare ideas, inviting students to write and reflect on the presented material, and asking students collaborate in small groups (Bean Reference Bean2011, 202–05; Bonwell and Eison Reference Bonwell and Eison1991, 13–19). This activity also appeals to students who prefer solitary learning, although opportunities for interaction can engage social learners. Enhanced lectures draw in verbal and visual learners, because the lecture is presented verbally and usually accompanied by visuals. I used short lectures with opportunities for questions and discussion to clarify key content, such as examining authors' differing definitions of globalization, and writing strategies, such as using rough drafts to show effective and ineffective thesis statements.

Small group activities ask students to interact with just a few classmates, encouraging students to listen, promoting cooperation, and encouraging respect for different viewpoints. An instructor can ask small groups to generate ideas, summarize key points, assess understanding, review assignments, or solve problems; each group can then report a portion of their discussion to the rest of the class (Brookfield and Preskill Reference Brookfield and Preskill2005, 101–23). The entire class can examine and react to each group's findings, and the instructor can connect what the class has discussed to the overall learning objectives (Bean Reference Bean2011, 183–201). Small groups can engage social and verbal learners, as well as physical learners if students move around to work with their classmates. Some students are more willing to participate in small groups than a larger group, so small groups provide an opportunity to engage more reserved students who may be more solitary learners (Brookfield and Preskill Reference Brookfield and Preskill2005, 10). Frequently I asked students to break into small groups to discuss and evaluate a specific text.

In-class writing is the most solitary of these learning activities. Students can be asked to write for many reasons. For example, instructors can ask students to summarize or reflect on particular text before discussion, summarize what has been covered, or examine the implications of a topic just covered. Focusing on writing, students can comment on their peers' drafts, revise their own drafts, or sketch out ideas for upcoming papers. In-class writing prompts students to engage with course material, clarify and reflect on key concepts, and discover and explore new ideas (Bean Reference Bean2011, 131–43). This activity engages verbal, visual, and solitary learners, although peer review can make writing more social. I used in-class writing to help students reflect on course material, such as asking why they found one reading more persuasive than another, and to work on key writing strategies, through reviewing their peers' papers.

Most often, this course engaged in several active learning activities during each class period. For instance, in a one class, I asked students to write down several questions they had about the days' readings, put one of these questions on the board, asked small groups to choose a few questions for discussion and share their findings with the whole class, and concluded with a large group discussion on a few related, open-ended questions tied to the course's overall learning objectives.

ASSESSMENT OF ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES

I examined students' survey responses about how these six active learning activities contributed to their learning. Although I did not ask students to complete a learning styles inventory, I learned a great deal about their preferred activities from their survey responses.

Table 2 shows students' responses to the quantitative questions about which active learning activities helped them learn. Large group discussion was the most preferred active learning method, with 87% of students agreeing that this activity helped them learn. Simulations trailed well behind, with 64% of students agreeing that this activity helped them learn, followed closely by case studies (63%). A majority found small group work (54%) and enhanced lectures (50%) helpful, but only 36% of students found in-class writing helpful.

Table 2 Student Responses about which Active Learning Strategies Helped Them Learn

Note: Likert scale, 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neutral, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree. Final student evaluations from four sections of an introductory first-year seminar on globalization (14–16 students) taught between Fall 2007 and Fall 2010. 91% (53 of 58) of students responded, but some did not answer every question. Midterm evaluations (not shown) had similar results.

Students' qualitative responses likewise demonstrate that a majority of students felt that large group discussions, simulations, and case studies were the most helpful activities, and lectures and in-class writing were less helpful. One student wrote, “the discussions are interesting and stimulating,” while another noted that the best aspect of the class was “listening + participating in discussions. Very interesting.” Another commented that her favorite class activity was “debates! They were so fun and helped a lot.” Another student found the “policy simulations very fun and informative.” Almost as many students agreed that they learned as much from case studies as they did from role plays. As one student commented, “I enjoyed the case studies and learning about the different aspects and effects of globalization.” However, note that some students found other activities useful. One of the 50% of students who found enhanced lectures helpful commented that she most enjoyed the “PowerPoints on writing” that accompanied enhanced lectures on key writing skills. Another student, part of the 36% of students who found in-class writing helpful, noted that one of the best aspects of the course was “peer editing,” which generally happened in class.

Simulations sparked the broadest disagreement among students, shown by the question's standard deviation (1.17), the highest of any in the survey. The strong division in opinions is also shown in students' qualitative responses. Many students found simulations helpful and enjoyable. One student put a 6 on the quantitative evaluation form, and others repeatedly circled the 5 and added exclamation marks to show their enthusiasm. But 36% of students did not agree that role plays helped them learn. One student explained that while the simulations “were often fun and in some ways helped provide perspective, [they] otherwise were uninformative.” Although some students appreciated that role plays gave a glimpse into the difficulty of making policy, others found this exasperating. Wrote one student, “the debate about trade … was excellent. It really exposed me to the reality of why it is difficult for nations to come to a consensus.” However, another student found role plays unhelpful because “they never accomplish an agreement.” Other students contrasted their frustration with simulations to other activities they found more successful. Reflecting the 23% of students who noted that large group discussions helped them learn whereas role plays did not, one student wrote that “class discussions have been most helpful” but that simulations were the “least successful” activity. Comparing simulations to case studies, one student wrote, “We should spend less time debating topics and more time in specific case studies.” Commented another, “I really enjoyed the case studies. I found them useful. I didn't feel like I learned much in the policy simulation.”

Among the most and least preferred activities, there were no prominent differences in students' preferred learning medium. All six activities are verbal; the only major differences are that role plays and small group work can have a physical aspect and that lectures and writing generally have a visual component. However, a salient difference in learning environment is shown. Large group discussions and role plays are very social, whereas enhanced lecture and in-class writing are more solitary. Students reflected on this distinction in their survey responses. As one student explained, “I am engaged and learn when we discuss.” Wrote another, “I liked the simulations and discussions help clarify things.” Although solitary learners seemed to be in the minority, their learning preferences still need to be considered. As one student commented, “discussion was at times intimidating.” Wrote another, “I would have liked more small group discussion and individual writing / analyzing time.” Wanting more time to reflect on the material, one student suggested, “maybe more lectures on the readings instead of discussion.”

Examining students' responses to class activities helped me better understand which activities students found valuable. Without the survey, I would have assumed that students learned most from simulations, as a vocal majority of students were very enthusiastic about them. Instead, students' survey responses showed that a substantial minority found simulations unhelpful and that large group discussion was actually the most preferred active learning strategy.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This article grew out of a paper I presented at the 2008 APSA Teaching and Learning Conference. Many thanks to the participants at the conference as well as to the anonymous reviewer for helpful feedback.