Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-c47g7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T05:13:44.372Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Strategies for preventing heat stress in poultry

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

H. Lin ,
H.C. Jiao ,
J. Buyse  and
E. Decuypere
H. Lin*
Affiliation:
Department of Animal Science, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong 271018, P.R. China
H.C. Jiao
Affiliation:
Department of Animal Science, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong 271018, P.R. China
J. Buyse
Affiliation:
Lab of Animal Physiology and Immunology of Domestic Animal, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, Katholic University Leuven, Belgium
E. Decuypere
Affiliation:
Lab of Animal Physiology and Immunology of Domestic Animal, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, Katholic University Leuven, Belgium
*
Corresponding author: hailin@sdau.edu.cn
Get access

Abstract

Their higher production performance and feed conversion efficiency make today's chickens more susceptible to heat stress than ever before. The increasing proportion of poultry production in tropical and subtropical regions makes it necessary to reconsider the long-term selection strategy of today's commercial breeding programmes. Also, the importance of the potential use of Naked neck and Frizzle genes is accentuated. Nutritional strategies aimed to alleviate the negative effects of heat stress by maintaining feed intake, electrolytic and water balance or by supplementing micronutrients such as Vitamins and minerals to satisfy the special needs during heat stress have been proven advantageous. To enhance the birds' thermotolerance by early heat conditioning or feed restriction seems to be one of the most promising management methods in enhancing the heat resistance of broiler chickens in the short run.

Keywords

heat stressheat tolerancenaked neck genemajor geneVitaminelectrolytefeedingenvironment
Type
Reviews
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 62 , Issue 1 , March 2006 , pp. 71 - 86
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aerts, J-M., Berckmans, D., Saevels, P., Decuypere, E. and Buyse, J. (2000) Modelling the static and dynamic responses of total heat production of broiler chickens to step changes in air temperature andlight intensity. British Poultry Science 41: 651–659.Google Scholar
Ait-Boulahsen, A., Garlich, J.D. and Edens, F.W. (1995) Potassium chloride improves thethermotolerance of chickens exposed to acute heat stress. Poultry Science 74: 75–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alleman, F. and Leclercq, B. (1997) Effect of dietary protein and environmental temperature ongrowth performance and water consumption of male broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 38: 607–610.Google Scholar
Almirall, M., Cos, R., Esteve-Garcia, E. and Brufau, J. (1997) Effect of inclusion of sugar beetpulp, pelleting and season on laying hen performance. British Poultry Science 38: 530–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al-Murrani, W.K., Kassab, A., Al-Sam, H.Z. and Al-Athari, A.M.K. (1997) Heterophil/lymphocyte ratio as a selection criterion for heat resistance in domestic fowls. British Poultry science 38: 159–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arjona, A.A., Denbow, D.M. and Weaver, W.D. (1988) Effect of heat stress early in life on mortalityof broilers exposed to high temperature just prior to marketing. Poultry Science 67: 226–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arjona, A.A., Denbow, D.M. and Weaver, W.D. (1990) Neonatal induced thermotolerance: physiological responses. Comparative Biochemistry Physiology A95: 393–399.Google Scholar
Balnave, D. and Oliva, A.G. (1991) The influence of sodium bicarbonate and sulphur amino acids on theperformance of broilers at moderate and high temperature. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 42: 1385–1397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balnave, D. and Muheereza, S.K. (1997) Improving eggshell quality at high temperatures with dietarysodium bicarbonate. Poultry Science 76: 588–593.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balnave, D. and Brake, J. (1999) Responses of broilers to sodium bicarbonate supplementation of dietscontaining varying arginine: lysine ratios. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 50: 425–430.Google Scholar
Basilio, V. De, VilariňO, M., Yahav, S. and Picard, M. (2001) Early age thermal conditioning anda dual feeding program for male broilers challenged by heat stress. Poultry Science 80: 29–36.Google Scholar
Basilio, V. De, Requena, F., Leon, A., Vilarino, M. and Picard, M. (2003) Early age thermalconditioning immediately reduces body temperature of broiler chicks in a tropical environment. Poultry science 82: 1235–1241.Google Scholar
Beaumont, C., Guillaumin, S., Geraert, P.A., Mignon-Grasteau, S. and Leclercq, B. (1998) Genetic parameters of body weight of broiler chickens measures at 22 C or 32 C. British Poultry science 39: 488–491.Google Scholar
Bell, D.B. and Marion, J.E. (1990) Vitamin C in laying hen diets. Poultry Science 69: 1900–1904.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bollengier-Lee, S., Mitchell, M.A., Utomo, D.B., Williams, P.E.V. and Whitehead, C.C. (1998) Influence of high dietary Vitamin E supplementation on egg production and plasmacharacteristics in hens subjected to heat stress. British Poultry Science 39: 106–112.Google Scholar
Bollengier-Lee, S., Willams, P.E.V. and Whitehead, C.C. (1999) Optimal dietary concentrationof Vitamin E for alleviating the effect of heat stress on egg production in laying hens. British Poultry Science 40: 102–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borges, S.A., Fischer Da Silva, A.V., Majorka, A., Hooge, D.M. and Cummings, K.R. (2004) Physiological responses of broiler chickens to heat stress and dietary electrolyte balance (sodium pluspotassium minus chloride, milliequivalents per kilogram). Poultry Science 83: 1551–1558.Google Scholar
Bottje, G. and Harrison, P.C. (1985) The effects of tap water, carbonated water, sodium bicarbonate, and calcium chloride on blood acid-base balance in cockerels subjected to heat stress. Poultry Science 64: 107–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Branton, S.L., Reece, F.N. and Deaton, J.W. (1986) Use of ammonium chloride and sodiumbicarbonate in acute heat exposure of broilers. Poultry Science 65: 1689–1663.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brake, J., Balnave, D. and Dibner, J.J. (1998) Optimum dietary arginine: lysine ratio for broilerchickens in altered during heat stress in association with changes in intestinal uptake and dietary sodiumchloride. British Poultry Science 39: 639–647.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buyse, J., Decuypere, E., Berghman, L., Kühn, E.R. and Vandesande, F. (1992) Effect ofdietary protein content on episodic growth hormone secretion and on heat production of male broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 33: 1101–1109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buyse, J., Decuypere, E. and Michels, H. (1994) Intermittent lighting and broiler production 2. Effecton energy and on nitrogen metabolism. Archiv für Geflügelkunde 58: 78–83.Google Scholar
Cahaner, A. and Leenstra, F. (1992) Effects of high temperature on growth and efficiency of male andfemale broilers from lines selected for high weight gain, favourable feed conversion, and high or low fatcontent. Poultry Science 71: 1237–1250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cahaner, A., Deeb, N. and Gutman, M. (1993) Effects of the plumage-reducing naked neck (Na) geneon the performance of fast-growing broilers at normal and high ambient temperatures. Poultry Science 72: 767–775.Google Scholar
Cahaner, A., Pinchasov, Y. and Nir, I. (1995) Effects of dietary protein under high temperature onbody weight, breast meat yield, and abdominal fat deposition of broiler stocks differing in growth rate andfatness. Poultry Science 74: 968–975.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlile, F.S. (1984) Ammonia in poultry houses: Aliterature review. World's Poultry Science Journal 40: 99–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charles, D.R. (2002) Responses to the thermal environment. In: Poultry Environment Problems, A guide tosolutions (Charles, D.A. and Walker, A.W. Eds.), Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, United Kingdom, pp.1–16.Google Scholar
Chen, J., Li, X., Balnave, D. and Brake, J. (2005) The influence of dietary sodium chloride, arginine:lysine ratio, and methionine source on apparent ileal digestibility of arginine and lysine in acutelyheat-stressed broilers. Poultry Science 84: 294–297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corzo, A., Moran, E.T. and Hoehler, D. (2003) Lysine needs of summer-reared male broilers from sixto eight weeks of age. Poultry Science 82: 1602–1607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creel, L.H., Maurice, D.V., Lightsey, S.F. and Grimes, L.W. (2001) Stability of dietary ascorbicacid and the effect of supplementation on reproductive performance of broiler breeder chickens. British Poultry Science 42: 96–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Decuypere, E., Huybrechts, L.M., Kühn, E.R., Tixier-Boichard, M. and Mérat, P. (1991) Physiological alterations associated with the chicken sex-linked dwarfing gene. Critical Review of Poultrybiology 3: 191–221.Google Scholar
Decuypere, E., Buyse, J., Mérat, P., Zoons, J. and Vloeberghs, I. (1993) Growth, abdominalfat content, heat production and plasma hormone levels of naked-neck and control broiler chickens. Animal production 57: 483–490.Google Scholar
Deeb, N. and Cahaner, A. (1999) The effects of naked neck genotypes, ambient temperature, and feedingstatus and their interactions on body temperature and performance of broilers. Poultry Science 78: 1341–1346.Google Scholar
Deeb, N. and Cahaner, A. (2001a) Genotype-by-temperature interaction with broiler genotypes differingin growth rate. 1. The effects of high ambient temperature and naked-neck genotype on lines differing ingenetic background. Poultry Science 80: 695–702.Google Scholar
Deeb, N. and Cahaner, A. (2001b) Genotype-by-temperature interaction with broiler genotypes differingin growth rate. 2. The effects of high ambient temperature on dwarf versus normal broilers. Poultry Science 80: 541–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deeb, N. and Cahaner, A. (2002) Genotype-by-temperature interaction with broiler genotypes differing ingrowth rate. 3. Growth rate and water consumption of broiler progeny from weight-selected versusnonselected parents under normal and high ambient temperature. Poultry Science 81: 293–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eberhart, D.E. and Washburn, K.W. (1993) Assessing the effects of the naked neck gene on chronicheat stress resistance in two genetic population. Poultry Science 72: 1391–1399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Gendy, E. and Washburg, K.W. (1995) Genetic variation in body temperature and its response toshort-term acute heat stress in broilers. Poultry Science 74: 225–230.Google Scholar
Ferket, P.R. and Qureshi, M.A. (1992) Performance and immunity of heat-stressed broilers fed Vitaminandelectrolyte-supplemented drinking water. Poultry Science 71: 88–97.Google Scholar
Francis, C.A., Macleod, M.G. and Anderson, J.E.M. (1991) Alleviation of acute heat stress by feedwithdrawal or darkness. British Poultry Science 32: 219–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonet, N.A., Sandercock, D.A. and Mitchell, M.A. (2000) A comparison of thermoregulatorycapacity in three lines of female broiler breeders. British Poultry Science 41: 700–701.Google Scholar
Gorman, I. and Balnave, D. (1994) Effects of dietary mineral supplementation on the performance andmineral retentions of broilers at high ambient temperatures. British Poultry Science 35: 563–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halevy, O., Krispin, A., Leshem, Y., McMurtry, J. P. and Yahav, S. (2001) Early-age heatexposure affects skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation and differentiation in chicks. American Journal ofPhysiology, Regulatory Integrative Comparative Physiology 281: R302–R309.Google Scholar
Hanzl, C.J. and Somes, R.G. Jr. (1983) The effect of the naked neck gene, Na, on growth and carcasscomposition of broilers raised in two temperatures. Poultry Science 62: 934–941.Google Scholar
Hayat, J., Balnave, D. and Brake, J. (1999) Sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate supplementsfor broilers can cause poor performance at high temperatures. British Poultry Science 40: 411–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hocking, P.M., Maxwell, M.H. and Mitchell, M.A. (1994) Haematology and blood compositionat two ambient temperatures in genetically fat and lean adult broiler breeder females fed ad libitum orrestricted throughout life. British Poultry Science 35: 799–807.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howlider, M.A.R. and Rose, S.P. (1987) Temperature and the growth of broilers. World's Poultry Science Journal 43: 228–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khajavi, M., Rahimi, S., Hassan, Z.M., Kamali, M.A. and Mousavi, T. (2003) Effect of feed restriction early in life on humoral and cellular immunity of two commercial broiler strains under heat stress conditions. British Poultry Science 44: 490–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirunda, D.F.K., Scheideler, S.E. and McKee, S.R. (2001) The efficacy of Vitamin E (DL-α-tocopheryl acetate) supplementation in hens diets to alleviate egg quality deterioration associated with high temperature exposure. Poultry Science 80: 1378–1383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kristensen, H.H. and Wathes, C.M. (2000) Ammonia and poultry welfare: a review. World's Poultry Science Journal 56: 235–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kutlu, H.R. and Forbes, J.M. (1993) Self-selection of ascorbic acid in coloured feeds by heat-stressed broiler chicks. Physiology and Behavior 53: 103–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kutlu, H.R. (2001) Influences of wet feeding and supplementation with ascorbic acid on performance and carcass composition of broiler chicks exposed to a high ambient temperature. Archiv für Tierernahrung 54:127–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kucuk, O., Sahin, N. and Sahin, K. (2003) Supplemental zinc and Vitamin A can alleviate negative effects of heat stress in broiler chickens. Biological Trace Element Research 94: 225–235.Google Scholar
Lan, P.T., Sakamoto, M. and Benno, Y. (2004) Effects of two probiotic lactobacillus strains on jejunal and caecal microbiota of broiler chicken under acute heat stress condition as revealed by molecular analysis of 16S rRNA genes. Microbiology and Immunology 48: 917–929.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liew, P.K., Zulkifli, I., Hair-Bejo, M., Omar, A.R. and Israf, D.A. (2003) Effects of early age feed restriction and heat conditioning on heat shock protein 70 expression, resistance to infectious bursal disease, and growth in male broiler chickens subjected to heat stress. Poultry Science 82: 1879–1885.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lin, H., Du, R. and Zhang, Z.Y. (2000) The peroxidation in tissues of heat-stressed broilers. Asian- Australian Journal of Animal Science 13: 1373–1376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, H., Wang, L.F., Song, J.L., Xie, Y.M. and Yang, Q.M. (2002) Effect of dietary supplemental levels of Vitamin A on egg production and immune responses of heat-stressed laying hens. Poultry Science 81: 458–465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lin, H., Buyse, J., Sheng, Q.K., Xie, Y.M. and Song, J.L. (2003) Effects of ascorbic acid supplementation on the immune function and laying performance of heat-stressed laying hens. Journal of Feed, Agriculture and Environment 1: 103–107.Google Scholar
Lin, H., Zhang, H.F., Jiao, H.C., Zhao, T., Sui, S.J., Gu, X.H., Zhang, Z.Y.Buyse, J. and Decuypere, E. (2005a) The thermoregulation response of broiler chickens to humidity at different ambient temperatures I. One-week-age. ?Poultry Science 84: 1166–1172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, H., Zhang, H.F., Du, R., Gu, X.H., Zhang, Z.Y.Buyse, J. and Decuypere, E. (2005b). The thermoregulation response of broiler chickens to humidity at different ambient temperatures I. Four-week-age. Poultry Science 84: 1173–1178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, H., Jiao, H.C., Decuypere, E. and Buyse, J. (2005c). Physiological responses to heat stress in poultry. Journal of Thermal Biology (submitted).Google Scholar
Macleod, M.G. and Hocking, P.M. (1993) Thermoregulation at high ambient temperature in genetically fat and lean broiler hens fed ad libitum or on a controlled-feeding regime. British Poultry Science 34: 589–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahmoud, K.Z., Edens, F.W., Eisen, E.J. and Havenstein, G.B. (2004) Ascorbic acid decreases heat shock protein 70 and plasma corticosterone response in broilers (Gallus gallus domesticus) subjected to cyclic heat stress. Comparative Biochemical Physiology, B 137:35–42.Google Scholar
Marsden, A. and Morris, T.R. (1987) Quantitative review of the effects of environmental temperature on feed intake, egg output and energy balance in laying pullet. British Poultry Science 28: 693–704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mathur, P.K. and Horst, P. (1994) Genotype by environment interactions in laying hens based o relationship between breeding values of sires in temperate and tropical environment. Poultry Science 73: 1777–1784.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKee, J.S. and Hurrison, P.C. (1995) Effects of supplemental ascorbic acid on the performance of broiler chickens exposed to multiple concurrent stressors. Poultry Science 74: 1772–1785.Google Scholar
McKee, J.S., Hurrison, P.C. and Riskowski, G.L. (1997) Effects of supplemental ascorbic acid on the energy conversion of broiler chicks during heat stress and feed withdrawal. Poultry Science 76: 1278–1286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendes, A.A., Watkins, S.E., England, J.A., Saleh, E.A., Waldroup, A.L. and Waldroup, P.W. (1997) Influence of dietary lysine levels and arginine:lysine ratios on performance of broilers exposed to heat or cold stress during the period of three to six weeks of age. Poultry Science 76: 472–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merat, P. (1986) Potential usefulness of the Na (naked neck) gene in poultry production. World's Poultry Science Journal 42: 124–142.Google Scholar
Miles, D.M., Branton, S.L. and Lott, B.D. (2004) Atmospheric ammonia is detrimental to the performance of modern commercial broilers. Poultry Science 83: 1650–1654.Google Scholar
Niekerk, T. VAN, Garber, T.K., Dunnington, E.A., Gross, W.B. and Siegel, P.B. (1989) Response of white leghorn chicks fed ascorbic acid and challenged with Escherichia coli or with cortiocosterone. Poultry Science 68: 1631–1636.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Okan, F., Kutlu, H.R., Canogullari, S. and Baykal, L. (1996a). Influence of dietary supplementalascorbic acid on laying performance of Japanese quail reared under high environmental temperature. British Poultry Science 37: S71–S73.Google Scholar
Okan, F., Kutlu, H.R., Baykal, L. and Canogullari, S. (1996b) Effect of wet feeding on layingperformance of Japanese quail maintained under high environmental temperature. British Poultry Science 37(suppl.): S70–71.Google Scholar
Orban, J.I., Roland, D.A. Sr, Cummins, K. and Lovel, R.T. (1993) Influence of large dose ofascorbic acid on performance on performance, plasma calcium, bone characteristic, and eggshell quality inbroilers and leghorn hens. Poultry Science 72: 691–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pardue, S.L. and Thaxton, J.P. (1982) Enhanced livability and improved immunological responsivenessin ascorbic acid supplemented cockerels during acute heat stress. Poultry Science 61: 1522 (Abstr.).Google Scholar
Pardue, S.L., Thaxton, J.P. and Brake, J. (1984) Plasma ascorbic acid concentration followingascorbic acid loading in chicks. Poultry Science 63: 2492–2496.Google Scholar
Patra, B.N., Bais, R.K.S., Prasad, R.B. and Singh, B.P. (2002) Performance of naked neck versusnormally feathered coloured broilers for growth, carcass traits and blood biochemical parameters in tropicalclimate. Asian-Australian Journal of Animal Science 12: 1776–1783.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peebles, E.D. and Brake, J. (1985) Relationship of dietary ascorbic acid to broiler breeder performance. Poultry Science 64: 2041–2048.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratt, E.V., Rose, S.P. and Keeling, A.A. (2004) Effect of moisture content and ambient temperature onthe gaseous nitrogen loss from stores laying hen manure. British Poultry Science 45: 301–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puthpongsiriporn, U., Scheideler, S.E., Sell, J.L. and Beck, M.M. (2001) Effects of Vitamine and C supplementation on performance, in vitro lymphocyte proliferation, and antioxidant status of layinghens during heat stress. Poultry Science 80: 1190–1200.Google Scholar
Puvadolpirod, S. and Thaxton, J.P. (2000) Model of physiological stress in chickens 1. responseparameters. Poultry Science 79: 363–369.Google Scholar
Raju, M.V., Sunder, G.S., Chawak, M.M., Rao, S.V. and Sadagopan, V.R. (2004) Response ofnaked neck (Nana) and normal (nana) broiler chickens to dietary energy levels in a subtropical climate. British Poultry Science 45: 186–193.Google Scholar
Rose, S.P. and Uddin, M.S. (1997) Effect of temperature on the responses of broiler chickens to dietarylysine balance. British Poultry Science 38: S36–S37.Google Scholar
Sahin, K., Sahin, N., Onderci, M., Gursu, F. and Cikim, G. (2002) Optimal dietary concentration of chromium for alleviating the effect of heat stress on growth, carcass qualities, and some serum metabolites ofbroiler chickens. Biological Trace Element Research 89: 53–64.Google Scholar
Sahin, K., Onderci, M., Sahin, N., Gursu, M.F. and Kucuk, O. (2003) Dietary Vitamin C and folicacid supplementation ameliorates the detrimental effects of heat stress in Japanese quail. Journal of Nutrition 133: 1882–1886.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samara, M.H., Robbins, K.R. and Smith, M.O. (1996) Interaction of feeding time and temperature andtheir relationship to performance of the broiler breeder hen. Poultry Science 75: 34–41.Google Scholar
Settar, P., Yalçin, S., Türkmut, L., Özkan, S. and Cahanar, C. (1999) Season by genotypeinteraction related to broiler growth rate and heat tolerance. Poultry Science 78: 1353–1358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shane, S. M. (1988) Factors influence health and performance of poultry in hot climates. Poultry Biology 1: 247–269.Google Scholar
Siegel, H.S. (1995) Stress, strains and resistance. British Poultry Science 36: 3–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, M.O. (1994) Effects of electrolyte and lighting regimen on growth of heat-distressed broilers. Poultry science 73: 350–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, M.O. and Teeter, R.G. (1987) Potassium balance of the 5 to 8-week old broiler exposed to constantor cyclic high temperature stress and the effects of supplemental potassium chloride on body weight gain andfeed efficiency. Poultry Science 66: 487–492.Google Scholar
Syke, A.H. and Salih, F.I.M. (1986) Effect of changes in dietary energy intake and environmentaltemperature on heat tolerance on the fowl. British Poultry Science 27: 687–693.Google Scholar
Tadtiyanant, C., Lyons, J.J. and Vandepopuliere, J.M. (1991) Influence of wet and dry feed onlaying hens under heat stress. Poultry Science 70: 44–52.Google Scholar
Taouis, M., De Basilio, V., Mignon-Grasteau, S., Crochet, S., Bouchot, C., Bigot, K., Collin, A. and Picard, M. (2002) Early-age thermal conditioning reduces uncoupling proteinmessenger RNA expression in pectoral muscle of broiler chicks at seven days of age. Poultry Science 81: 1640–1643.Google Scholar
Teeter, R.G., Smith, M.O., Owens, F.N. and Arp, S.C. (1985) Chronic heat stress and respiratoryalkalosis: Occurrence and treatment in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 64: 1060–1064.Google Scholar
Teeter, R.G. and Smith, M.O. (1986) High chronic ambient temperature stress effects on broiler acid-basebalance and their response to supplemental ammonium chloride, potassium chloride, and potassiumcarbonate. Poultry Science 65: 1777–1781.Google Scholar
Temim, S., Chagneau, A.M., Peresson, R. and Tesseraud, S. (2000) Chronic heat exposure altersprotein turnover of three different skeletal muscles in finishing broiler chickens fed 20 or 25% protein diets. Journal of Nutrition 130: 813–819.Google Scholar
Uni, Z., Gal-Garber, O., Geyra, A., Sklan, D. and Yahav, S. (2001) Changes in growth andfunction of chick small intestine epithelium due to early thermal conditioning. Poultry Science 80: 438–445.Google Scholar
Veldkamp, T., Ferket, P.R., Kwakkel, R.P., Nixey, C. and Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M. (2000a) Interaction between ambient temperature and supplementation of synthetic amino acid on performance andcarcass parameters in commercial male turkeys. Poultry Science 79: 1472–1477.Google Scholar
Veldkamp, T., Kwakkel, R.P., Ferket, P.R., Simons, P.C.M., Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M. and Pijpers, A. (2000b) Effects of ambient temperature, arginine-to-lysine ratio, and electrolyte balance onperformance, carcass, and blood parameters in commercial male turkeys. Poultry Science 79: 1608–1616.Google Scholar
Wang, L.F., Lin, H. and Yang, Q.M. (2002) The effect of dietary Vitamin A levels on peroxidation status of inoculated and heat-stressed laying hens. Acta Veterinaria et Zootechnica Sinica 33: 443–447.Google Scholar
Washburn, K.W., Peavey, R. and Renwick, G.M. (1980) Relationship of strain variation and feed restriction to variation in blood pressure and response to heat stress. Poultry Science 59: 2586–2588.Google Scholar
Wathes, C.W. (1998) Aerial emissions from poultry production. World's Poultry Science Journal 54: 241–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weytjens, S., Meijerhof, R., Buyse, J. and Decuypere, E. (1999) Thermoregulation in chicks originating from breeder flocks of two different ages. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 8: 139–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiting, T.S., Andrews, L.D. and Stamps, L. (1991) Effects of sodium bicarbonate and potassium chloride drinking water supplementation. 2. Meat and carcass characteristics of broilers grown under thermoneutral or cyclic heat-stress conditions. Poultry Science 70: 60–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiernusz, C.J. and Teeter, R.G. (1993) Feeding effects of broiler thermobalance during themoneutraland high ambient temperature exposure. Poultry Science 72: 1917–1924.Google Scholar
Wiernusz, C.J. and Teeter, R.G. (1996) Acclimation effects on fed and fasted broiler thermobalanceduring themoneutral and high ambient temperature exposure. British Poultry Science 37: 677–687.Google Scholar
Yahav, S. (2000a) Domestic fowl – strategies of confront environmental conditions. Avian and Poultry Biologyreviews 11: 81–95.Google Scholar
Yahav, S. (2000b) Relative humidity at moderate ambient temperature: its effect on male broiler chickens and turkey. British Poultry Science 41: 94–100.Google Scholar
Yahav, S. and Hurwitz, S. (1996) Induction of thermotolerance in male broiler chickens by temperature conditioning at an early age. Poultry Science 75: 402–406.Google Scholar
Yahav, S. (2004) Ammonia affects performance and thermoregulation of male broiler chickens. Animal research 53: 289–293.Google Scholar
Yahav, S., Goldfeld, S., Plavnik, I. and Hurwitz, S. (1995) Physiological responses of chickensand turkeys to relative humidity during exposure to high ambient temperature. Journal of Thermal Biology 20: 245–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yahav, S., Shamai, A., Horev, G., Bar-Ilan, D., Genina, O. and Friedman-Einat, M. (1997) Effect of acquisition of improved thermotolerance on the induction of hat shock proteins in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 76: 1428–1434.Google Scholar
Yahav, S. and Plavnik, I. (1999) Induction of early age thermal conditioning and feed restriction onperformance and thermotolerance of male broiler chicken. British Poultry Science 40: 120–126.Google Scholar
Yahav, S., Luger, D., Cahaner, A., Dotan, M., Rusal, M. and Hurwitz, S. (1998) Thermoregulation in naked neck chickens subjected to different ambient temperatures. British Poultry Science 39: 133–138.Google Scholar
Yahav, S. and McMurtry, J.P. (2001) Thermotolerance acquisition in broiler chickens by temperature conditioning early in life – The effect of timing and ambient temperature. Poultry Science 80: 1662–1666.Google Scholar
Yalçin, S., Özkan, S., Türkmut, L. and Siegel, P.B. (2001) Responses to heat stress in commercialand local broiler stocks. 1. Performance traits. British Poultry Science 42: 149–152.Google Scholar
Yalçlin, S., Settar, P., Özkan, S. and Cahaner, A. (1997a) Comparative evaluation of threecommercial broiler stocks in hot versus temperate climates. Poultry Science 76: 921–929.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yalçin, S., Testik, A., Özkan, S., Settar, P., Çelen, F. and Cahaner, A. (1997b) Performance of naked neck and normal broilers in hot, warm, and temperate climates. Poultry Science 76: 930–937.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yo, T., Siegel, P.B., Guerin, H. and Picard, M. (1997) Self-selection of dietary protein and energy bybroilers grown under a tropical climate: effect of feed particle size on the feed choice. Poultry Science 76: 1467–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yunis, R. and Cahaner, A. (1999) The effects of the naked neck (Na) and frizzle (F) genes on growth andmeat yield of broilers and their interactions with ambient temperatures and potential growth rate. Poultry science 78: 1347–1352.Google Scholar
Zapata, L.F. and Gernat, A.G. (1995) The effect of four levels of ascorbic acid and two levels of calciumon eggshell quality of force-moulted white leghorn hens. Poultry Science 74: 1049–1052.Google Scholar
Zhou, W.T. and Yamamoto, S. (1997) Effects of environmental temperature and heat production due tofeed intake on abdominal temperature, shank skin temperature and respiration rate of broilers. British Poultry science 38: 107–114.Google Scholar
Zhou, W.T., Fujita, M., Ito, T. and Yamamoto, S. (1997) Effects of early heat exposure on thermoregulatory responses and blood viscosity of broilers prior to marketing. British Poultry Science 38: 301–306.Google Scholar
Zulkifli, I., Dunnington, E.A., Gross, W.B. and Siegel, P.B. (1994a) Inhibition of adrenal steroidogenesis, feed restriction and acclimation of high ambient temperatures in chickens. British Poultry science 35: 417–426.Google Scholar
Zulkifli, I., Dunnington, E.A., Gross, W.B. and Siegel, P.B. (1994b) Feed restriction early orlater in life and its effect on adaptability, disease resistance, and immunocompetence of heat-stressed dwarfand non-dwarf chickens. British Poultry Science 35: 203–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zulkifli, I., Che Norma, M.T., Israf, D.A. and Omar, A.R. (2000) The effect of early age feed restriction on subsequent response to high environmental temperatures in female broiler chickens. Poultryscience 79: 1401–1407.Google Scholar
Zulkifli, I., Che Norma, M.T., Israf, D.A. and Omar, A.R. (2002) The effect of early-age feed restriction on heat shock protein 70 response in heat-stressed female broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 43: 141–145.Google Scholar