Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-c47g7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-18T01:26:17.031Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mycotoxins in broilers: pathological alterations induced by aflatoxins and ochratoxins, diagnosis and determination, treatment and control of mycotoxicosis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 August 2011

Z. ABIDIN ,
A. KHATOON  and
M. NUMAN
Z. ABIDIN*
Affiliation:
Veterinary Research Institute, Lahore Cantt., Pakistan
A. KHATOON
Affiliation:
Department of Pathology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
M. NUMAN
Affiliation:
Veterinary Research Institute, Lahore Cantt., Pakistan
*
Corresponding author: ranazain848@yahoo.com
Get access

Abstract

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi. Mycotoxins in feed are considered the second most serious issue in the poultry industry, following increased feed prices. There are different types of mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisin, trichothecenes, zearalenone, patulin, but the most important are aflatoxins and ochratoxins. Ochratoxin is known as a nephrotoxin as it damages kidney tissues predominantly, whereas aflatoxin has more adverse effects upon the liver. Diagnosis and determination of toxins can be done in tissues and feed samples by using different techniques such as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin layer liquid chromatography (TLC), and fluorescence polarization immunoassay (FPIA). Treatment of mycotoxicosis can be done by decontamination or detoxification of feed by using mycotoxin binders, plant preparations (nutraceuticals) and vitamins. Mycotoxicosis can be controlled by using transgenic crops and improving harvesting management, storing feed in good environmental conditions and fresh feed for the birds. Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) should be referred to for the control of mycotoxins in the food chain.

Keywords

mycotoxicosispathological alterationsaflatoxinochratoxin
Type
Review Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 67 , Issue 3 , September 2011 , pp. 485 - 496
Copyright
Copyright © World's Poultry Science Association 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ABIDIN, Z. (2010) Ameliorative effects of L-carnitine and vitamin E upon toxico-pathological alterations induced by ochratoxicosis in white Leg-horn cockerels. M. Phil Thesis, Department of Pathology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan.Google Scholar
AL-ANATI, L., ESSID, E., REINEHR, R. and PETZINGER, E. (2009) Silibinin protects OTA-mediated TNF-alpha release from perfused rat livers and isolated rat Kupffer cells. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research 53: 460-466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
AVANTAGGIATO, G., SOLFRIZZO, M. and VISCONTI, A. (2005) Recent advances on the use of adsorbent materials for detoxification of Fusarium mycotoxins. Food Additives and Contaminants 22: 379-388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BACHA, H., HADIDANE, R., CREPPY, E.E., REGNAULT, C., ELLOUZE, F. and DIRHEIMER, G. (1988) Monitoring and identification of fungal toxins in food products, animal feed and cereals in Tunisia. Journal of Stored Products Research 24: 199-206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BALDI, A., LOSIO, M.N., CHELI, F., REBUCCI, R., SANGALLI, L., FUSI, E., BERTASI, B., PAVONI, E., CARLI, S. and POLITIS, I. (2004) Evaluation of the protective effects of alpha-tocopherol and retinol against ochratoxin A cytotoxicity. British Journal of Nutrition 91:507-12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BASAPPA, S.C. and SHANTA, T. (1996) Methods for detoxification of aflatoxins in foods and feeds. A critical appraisal. Journal of Food Science and Technology 33: 95-107Google Scholar
BAUER, J. and GAREIS, M. (1987) Ochratoxin A im der Nahrungsmittelkette. Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series B 34:613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BAUER, J., NIEMIE, J. and SCHOLTYSSEK, S. (1988) Ochratoxin A in Legehennenfutter. 2. Mitteilung: Ruckstande in Serum. Leber und Ei. Archiv für Geflugelkunde 52:71.Google Scholar
BHATTI, S.A. (2010) Ameliorative effects of carnitine and vitamin E upon ochratoxin induced immuno-toxicological effects in white leg horn cockerels. M-Phil Thesis, Department of Pathology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan.Google Scholar
BILGIC, H.N. and YESILDERE, T. (1992) Renal lesions on experimental aflatoxicosis in chickens. I.U. Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi 18:102-108.Google Scholar
BINDER, E.M., HEIDLER, D., SCHATZMAYR, G., THIMM, N., FUCHS, E., SCHUH, M., KRSKA, R. and BINDER, J. (2000) Microbial detoxification of mycotoxins in animal feed. Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins in Perspective at the Turn of the Millennium. Proceedings of the 10th International IUPAC Symposium on Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins,” Guaruja, Brazil.Google Scholar
BINGHAM, A.K., PHILLIPS, T.D. and BAUER, J.E. (2003) Potential for dietary protection against the effects of aflatoxins in animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 222: 591-596.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BIRO, K., SLTI, L., VETRO, I.B., BAGO, G. and GLAVIS, R. (2002) Tissue distribution of ochratoxin A as determined by HPLC and ELISA and histopathological effects in chickens. Avian Pathology 31: 141-148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BLUNDEN, G., ROCH, O.G., ROGERS, D.J., COKER, R.D. and BRANDBURN, N. (1991) Mycotoxins in food. Medical Laboratory Science 48: 271-282.Google ScholarPubMed
BRICKNELL, L.K., NG, J.C. and BLANEY, B.J. (2006) Introducing haccp- based risk management for mycotoxin contamination in Australian maize 6th Terminal Conference 2006, Maize Association of Australia.Google Scholar
BRUCKNER, I., STOICA, G.H. and SERBAN, M. (1967) Studies on urinary proteins in endemic nephropathy, in: WOLSTENHOLME, G.E.W. & KNIGHT, J. (Eds) The Balkan Nephropathy. Little and Brown, pp. 84-99 (Boston, MA).Google Scholar
BUYSE, J., JANSENS, G.P. and DECUYPERE, E. (2001) The effects of dietary L-carnitine supplementation on the performance, organ weights and circulating hormone and metabolite concentrations of broiler chickens reared under a normal or low temperature schedule. British Poultry Science 42: 230-241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CARMEN, S., COMAN, I., SOLCAN, GH., MIRON, L. and OPREAN, O.Z. (2008) Histological and ultrastructural lesions of the kidney in experimental ochratoxicosis of broiler chickens. Bulletin University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine 65: 91-95.Google Scholar
CHANG, C.F., HUFF, W.E. and HAMILTON, P.B. (1979) A leucocytopenia induced in chickens by dietary ochratoxin A. Poultry Science 58: 555-558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CHULZE, S.N. (2010) Strategies to reduce mycotoxin levels in maize during storage: a review. Food Additives and Contaminants 27: 651-657.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CIEGLAR, A., FENNELL, D.L., MINTZLAFF, H.J. and LEISTNER, L. (1972) Ochratoxin synthesis by Penicillium species. Die Naturwissenshaften 59: 365-366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CITIL, M., GUNES, V., ATAKISI, O., AYLA, O., TUZCU, M. and DOGAN, A. (2005) Protective effect of L-carnitine against oxidative damage caused by experimental chronic aflatoxicosis in quail (Coturnix coturnix). Acta Veterinaria Hungarica 53: 319-324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DAVEGOWDA, G. and MURTHY, T.N.K. (2005) Mycotoxins, their effects in poultry and some practical solutions, in: D.E. DIAZ (Ed.) Mycotoxins Blue Book, pp. 25-56, (Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, UK).Google Scholar
DENG, K., WONG, C.W. and NOLAN, J.V. (2006) Long-term effects of early-life dietary L-carnitine on lymphoid organs and immune responses in Leghorn-type chickens. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 90: 81-86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DIAZ, D.E., HAGLER, W.M. JR, BLACKWELDER, J.T., EVE, J.A., HOPKINS, B.A., ANDERSON, K.L., JONES, F.T. and WHITLOW, L.W. (2004) Aflatoxin binders II: Reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk by sequestering agents of cows consuming aflatoxin in feed. Mycopathologia 157: 233-241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DUTTA T.K., DAS P.I. (2001) Isolation of aflatoxigenic strains of Aspergillus and detection of aflatoxin B1 from feeds in India. Mycopathologia 151: 29-33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DWIVEDI, P. and BURNS, R.B. (1984a) Pathology of ochratoxicosis A in young broiler chicks. Research in Veterinary Science 36: 92-103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DWIVEDI, P. and BURNS, R.B. (1984b) Effect of ochratoxin A on immunoglobulins in broiler chicks. Research in Veterinary Science 36: 117-121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
EGMOND, H.P.V. and PAULSCH, W.E. (1986) Determination of mycotoxins. Pure & Applied Chemistry 58: 315-326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ELAROUSSI, M.A., MOHAMED, F.R., EL BARKOUKY, E.M., ATTA, A.M., ABDOU, A.M. and HATAB, M.H. (2006) Experimental ochratoxicosis in broiler chickens. Avian Pathology 35: 263-269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ELAROUSSI, M.A., MOHAMED, P.R., ELGENDY, M.S., EL BLARKOUKY, E.M., ABDOU, A.M. and HATAB, M.H. (2008) Ochratoxicosis in broiler chickens: Functional and histological changes in target organs. International Journal of Poultry Science 5: 414-422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ERASLAN, G., ESSIZ, D., AKDOGAN, M., SAHINDOKUYUCU, F., ALTINTAS, L. and HISMIOGULLARI, S.E. (2005) Effect of dietary aflatoxin and sodium bentonite on some hormones in broiler chickens. Bulletin of the Veterinary Institute in Pulawy 49: 93-96.Google Scholar
ESPADA, Y., DOMINGO, M., GOMEZ, J. and CALVO, M.A. (1992) Pathological lesions following an experimental intoxication with aflatoxin B1 in broiler chickens. Research in Veterinary Science 53: 275-279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
FERNANDEZ, A., VERDE, M., GASCON, M., RAMOS, J., GOMEZ, J., LUCO, D.F. and CHAVEZ, G. (1994) Variations of clinical, biochemical parameters of laying hens and broiler chickens fed aflatoxin containing feed. Avian Pathology 23: 37-47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
FRAGA, M.E., CURVELLO, F., GATTI, M.J., CAVAGLIERI, L.R., DALCERO, A.M. and DA ROCHA ROSA, C.A. (2007) Potential aflatoxin and ochratoxin A production by Aspergillus species in poultry feed processing. Veterinary Research Communications 31: 343-353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
FRASCHINI, F., DEMARTINI, G. and ESPOSTI, D. (2002) Pharmacology of Silymarin. Clinical Drug Investigation 22: 51-65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FRYE, C.E. and CHU, F.S. (1977) Distribution of Ochratoxin A in chicken tissues and eggs. Journal of Food Safety 1: 147-159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GALVANO, F., PIETRI, A., BERTUZZI, T., FUSCONI, G., GALVANO, M., PIVA, A. and PIVA, G. (1996) Reduction of carryover of aflatoxin from cow feed to milk by addition of activated carbons. Journal of Food Protection 59: 551-554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
GARCIA, A.R., AVILA, E., ROSILES, R. and PETRONE, V.M. (2003) Evaluation of two mycotoxin binders to reduce toxicity of broiler diets containing ochratoxin A and T-2 toxin contaminated grain. Avian Diseases 47: 691-699.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
GIBSON, R.M., BAILEY, C.A., KUBENA, L.F., HUFF, W.E. and HARVEY, R.B. (1989) Ochratoxin A and dietary protein. 1. Effects on body weight, feed conversion, relative organ weight and mortality in three-week old broilers. Poultry Science 68: 1658-1663.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
GLAHN, R.P., BEERS, K.W., BOTTJE, W.G., WIDEMAN, R.F., HUFF, W.E. and THOMAS, W. (1991) Aflatoxicosis alters avian renal function, calcium, and vitamin D metabolism. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 34: 309-321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
GROSSE, Y., CHEKIR-GHEDIRAB, L., HUCA, A., OBRECHT-PFLUMIOC, S., DIRHEIMERC, G., BACHAB, H. and PFOHL-LESZKOWICZ, A. (1997) Retinol, ascorbic acid and a-tocopherol prevent DNA adduct formation in mice treated with the mycotoxins ochratoxin A and zearalenone. Cancer Letters 114: 225-229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GUGNANI, H.C. (2000) Ecology and taxonomy of pathogenic aspergilli. Frontiers in Bioscience 8: 346-57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HASSAN, Z. (2010) Pathological responses of progeny of hens kept on ochratoxin A contaminated feed. Ph. D Thesis. Department of Pathology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad.Google Scholar
HATCH, R.C., CLARK, J.D., JAIN, A.V. and WEISS, R. (1982) Induced acute aflatoxicosis in goats. Treatment with activated charcoal or dual combinations of oxytetracycline, stanozolol, and activated charcoal. American Journal of Veterinary Research 43: 644-648.Google ScholarPubMed
HESSELTINE, C.W., VANDEGRAFT, E.I., FENNELL, D.L., SMITH, M.C. and SHOTWELL, O.L. (1972) Aspergilli as ochratoxin producers. Mycologia 64: 539-550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HOEHLER, D. and MARQUARDT, R.R. (1996) Influence of vitamins E and C on the toxic effects of ochratoxin A and T-2 toxin in chicks. Poultry Science 75: 1508-1515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HOSSAIN, S.M., BARRETO, S.L., BERTECHINI, A.G., RIOS, A.M. and SILVA, C.G. (1998) Influence of dietary Vitamin E level on egg production of broiler breeders, and on the growth and immune response of progeny in comparison with the progeny from eggs injected with Vitamin E. Animal Feed Science and Technology 73: 307-317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HUFF, W.E. and DOERR, J.A. (1981) Synergism between aflatoxin and ochratoxin A in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 60: 550-555.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HUFF, W.E., DOERR, J.A., WABEK, C.J., CHALOUPKA, G.W., MAY, J.D. and MERKLEY, J.W. (1983) Individual and combined effects of aflatoxin and ochratoxin on bruising in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 62: 1764-1771.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HUFF, W.E., KUBENA, L.F. and HARVEY, R.B. (1988b) Progression of ochratoxicosis in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 67: 1139-1146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HUFF, W.E., KUBENA, L.F., HARVEY, R.B. and DOERR, J.A. (1988c) Mycotoxin interactions in poultry and swine. Journal of Animal Science 66: 2351-2355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HUFF, W.E., HARVEY, R.B., KUBENA, L.F., HAGLER, W.M. and ROTTINGHAUS, G.E. (1988a) Toxic synergism between aflatoxin and T-2 toxin in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 67: 1418-1423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HUFF, W.E., WYATT, R.D., TUCKER, T.L. and HAMILTON, P.B. (1974) Ochratoxicosis in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 53: 1585-1591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HUSSAIN, Z., KHAN, M.Z., KHAN, A., JAVED, I., SALEEMI, M.K., MEHMOOD, S. and ASI, M.R. (2010) Residues of aflatoxin B1 in broiler meat: Effect of age and dietary aflatoxin B1 levels. Food and Chemical Toxicology 48: 3304-3307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HUWIG, A., FREIMUND, S., KAPPELI, O. and DUTLER, H. (2001) Mycotoxin detoxication of animal feed by different adsorbents. Toxicology Letters 122: 179-188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
IBRAHIM, I.K., SHAREEF, A.M. and AL-JOUBORY, K.M.T. (2000) Ameliorative effects of sodium bentonite on phagocytosis and Newcastle disease antibody formation in broiler chickens during aflatoxicosis. Research in Veterinary Science 69: 119-122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
JOHNSON, V.J., HE, Q., OSUCHOWSKI, M.F. and SHARMA, R.P. (2003) Physiological responses of a natural antioxidant flavonoid mixture, silymarin, in BALB/c mice: III. Silymarin inhibits T-lymphocyte function at low doses but stimulates inflammatory processes at high doses. Planta Medica 69: 44-49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KATIYAR, S.K. (2005) Silymarin and skin cancer prevention: anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects (Review). International Journal of Oncology 26: 169-176.Google Scholar
KERMANSHAHI, H., HAZEGH, A.R. and AFZALI, N. (2009) Effect of sodium bentonite in broiler chickens fed diets contaminated with aflatoxin B1. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 8: 1631-1636.Google Scholar
KHAN, W.A. (2010) Pathological studies of aflatoxicosis on layer breeders and its subsequent effects on progeny. PhD Thesis, Department of Pathology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan.Google Scholar
KHATOON, A. (2010) Effects of ochratoxin A feeding to chicks upon immune system and their amelioration by silymarin and vitamin E. M-Phil Thesis, Department of Pathology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan.Google Scholar
KOPPLE, J.D., DING, H., LETOHA, A., IVEANYI, B., QING, D.P.Y., DUX, L., WANG, H.Y. and SONKODI, S. (2002) L-carnitine ameliorates Gentamicin-induced renal injury in rats. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 17: 2122-2131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KUBENA, L.F., HARVEY, R.B., FLETCHER, O.J., PHILLIPS, T.D., MOLLENHAUER, D.A., WITZELL, D.A. and HEIDELBAUGH, N.D. (1985) Toxicity of ochratoxin A and vanadium on growing chicks. Poultry Science 64: 620-628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KUMAR, A., JINDAL, N., SHUKLA, C.L., PAL, Y., LEDOUX, D.R. and ROTTINGHAUS, G.E. (2003) Effect of ochratoxin A on Escherichia coli challenged broiler chicks. Avian Diseases 47: 415-424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KUMAR, A., JINDALI, N., SHUKLA, C.L., ASRANI, R.K., LEDOUX, D.R. and ROTTINGHAUS, G.E. (2004) Pathological changes in broiler chickens fed ochratoxin A and inoculated with Escherichia coli. Avian Pathology 33: 413-417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KUMAR, R. and C. BALACHANDRAN, (2009) Histopathological changes in broiler chickens fed aflatoxin and cyclopiazonic acid. Veterinarski Arhiv 79: 31-40.Google Scholar
LEDOUX, D.R., ROTTINGHAUS, G.E., BERMUDEZ, A.J. and ALANSO-DEBOLT, M. (1999) Efficacy of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate to ameliorate the toxic effects of aflatoxin in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 78: 204-210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LEESON, S., DIAZ, G. and SUMMERS, J.D. (1995) Aflatoxins, in: LEESON, S., DIAZ. G.& SUMMERS, J.D. (Eds) Poultry Metabolic disorders and Mycotoxins, pp 248-279 (University Books, Ont.).Google Scholar
LOPEZ-GARCIA, R. and PARK, D.L. (1998) Effectiveness of postharvest procedures in management of mycotoxin hazards, in: SINHA, K.K. & BHATNAGAR, D. (Eds) Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety, pp. 407-433 (Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY).Google Scholar
LUPER, S. (1998) A review of plants used in the treatment of liver disease: Part I. Alternative Medicine Review 3: 410-421.Google Scholar
MARIN, S., MAGAN, N., ABELLANA, M., CANELA, R., RAMOS, A.J. and SANCHIS, V. (2000) Selective effect of propionates on maize mycoflora and impact on fumonisin B1 accumulation. Journal of Stored Products Research 36: 203-214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MARQUARDT, R.R. and FROHLICH, A.A. (1992) A review of recent advances in understanding ochratoxicosis. Journal of Animal Science 70: 3968-3988.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MARQUARDT, R.R., FROHLICH, A.A., SREEMANNARAYAMA, O., ABRAMSON, D. and BERNATSKY, A. (1988) Ochratoxin A in blood from slaughter pigs in Western Canada. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 52:186-190.Google ScholarPubMed
MARTH, E.H. and DOYLE, M.P. (1979) Update on molds: degradation of aflatoxin. Food Technology 33: 81.Google Scholar
MCKENZIE, K.S., SARR, A.B., MAYURA, K., BAILEY, R.H., MILLER, D.R., ROGERS, T.D., NORRED, W.P., VOSS, K.A., PLATTNER, R.D., KUBENA, L.F. and PHILLIPS, T.D. (1997) Oxidative degradation and detoxification of mycotoxins using a novel source of ozone. Food and Chemical Toxicology 35: 807-820.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MICCO, C., MIRAGLIA, M., ONORI, R., IOPPOLO, A. and MANTOVANI, A. (1988) Long-term administration of low doses of mycotoxins in poultry. 1. Residues of ochratoxin A in broilers and laying hens. Poultry Science 66: 47-50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MOHIUDDIN, S.M., REDDY, M.V. and AHMED, S.R. (1992) Studies on ochratoxicosis in broiler chicks Indian Veterinary Journal 69: 1011-1014.Google Scholar
NESCI, A., FERRARI, L. and ETCVHEVERRY, M. (2008) Effect of synthetic antioxidants on stored maize grain mycoflora in situ. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 88: 797-804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'BRIEN, E. and DIETRICH, D.R. (2005) Ochratoxin A: the continuing enigma. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 35: 33-60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
OGUZ, H., HADIMLI, H.H., KURTOGLU, V. and ERGANIS, O. (2003) Evaluation of humoral immunity of broilers during chronic aflatoxin (50 and 100 ppb) and clinoptilolite exposure. Revue de Medicine Veterinaire 154: 483-486.Google Scholar
OMURTAG, G.Z., ATAK, G., KESKIN, G. and ERSOY, O. (2002) HPLC assay for aflatoxins in dried red peppers and feedstuffs in turkey Acta Pharmaceutics Turcica 44: 11-22.Google Scholar
ORTATALI, M., OGUZ, H., HATIPOGLU, E. and KARAMAN, M. (2005) Evaluation of pathological changes in broilers during chronic aflatoxin (50 and 100ppb) and clinoptilolite exposure. Research in Veterinary Science 78: 61-68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ORTATATLI, M. and OGUZ, H. (2001) Ameliorative effects of dietary clinoptilolite on pathological changes in broiler chickens during aflatoxicosis. Research in Veterinary Science 71: 59-66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PECKHAM, J.C., DOUPNIK, B. JR and JONES, O.H. (1971) Acute toxicity of ochratoxin A and B in chicks. Applied Microbiology 21: 492-494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PERRONE, G., SUSCA, A., GOZZI, G., EHRLICH, K., VARGA, J., FRISVAD, J.C., MEIJERS, M., NOONIM, P., MAHAKARNCHANAKULS, W. and SAMSON, R.A. (2007) Biodiversity of Aspergillus species in some important agricultural products. Studies in Mycology59: 53-66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PHILLIPS, T.D., SARR, B.A., CLEMENT, B.A., KUBENA, L.F. and HARVEY, R.B. (1991) Prevention of aflatoxicosis in farm animals via selective chemisorption of aflatoxin, in: BRAY, G.A. & RYAN, D.H. (Eds) Mycotoxins, Cancer and Health, pp, 223-237 (Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge).Google Scholar
POLITIS, I., FEGEROS, K., NITSCH, S., SCHATZMAYR, G. and KANTAS, D. (2005) Use of Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans to suppress the effects of ochratoxicosis on the immune system of broiler chicks. British Poultry Science 46: 58-65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PRIOR, M.G., O'NEIL, J.B. and SISODIA, C.S. (1980) Effects of ochratoxin A on growth response and residues in broilers. Poultry Science 59: 1254-1257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
RAJASEKARAN, K., DE LUCCA A.J., and CARY, J.W. (2009) Aflatoxin control through transgenic approaches. Toxin Reviews 28: 89-101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RAMOS, A.J. and HERNANDEZ, E. (1997) Prevention of aflatoxicosis in farm animals by means of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate addition to feedstuffs. A review. Animal Feed Science and Technology 65: 197-206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RAMOS, A.J., FINK-GREMMELS, J. and HERNANDEZ, E. (1996) Prevention of toxic effects of mycotoxins by means of nonnutritive adsorbent compounds. Journal of Food Protection 59: 631-641.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
RAWAL, S., KIM, J.E. and COULOMBE, R. JR (2010) Aflatoxin B1 in poultry: Toxicology, metabolism and prevention. Research in Veterinary Science 89: 325-331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SANTILLAN, E.M., BUJAIDAR, E.M., MARQUEZ, R.M. and REYES, A. (2006) Antigenotoxic effect of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on the damage produced in mice fed with aflatoxin B1 contaminated corn. Food and Chemical Toxicology 44: 2058-2063.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SANTIN, E., MAIORKA, A., KRABBE, E.L., PAULILLO, A.C. and ALESSI, A.C. (2002) Effect of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate on the prevention of the toxic effects of ochratoxin. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 11: 22-28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SANTIN, E., PAULILLO, A.C., NAKAGUI, L.S.O., ALESSI, A.C., POLVEIRO, W.J.C. and MAIORKA, A. (2003) Evaluation of cell wall yeast as adsorbent of ochratoxin in broiler diets. International Journal of Poultry Science 6: 465-468.Google Scholar
SENER, G., PASKALOGLU, K., SATIROGLU, H., ALICAN, I., KACMAZ, A. and SAKARCAN, A. (2004) L-carnitine ameliorates oxidative damage due to chronic renal failure in rats. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 43: 698-705.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SHLOSBERG, A., ELKIN, N., MALKINSON, M., ORGAD, U., HANJI, V., BOGIN, E., WEISMAN, Y., MEROZ, M. and BOCK, R. (1997) Severe hepatopathy in geese and broilers associated with ochratoxin in their feed. Mycopathologia 138: 71-76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SINHA, K.K. (1998) Detoxification of mycotoxins and food safety, in: SINHA, K.K. & BHATNAGAR, D. (Eds) Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety, pp. 381-405 (Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York).Google Scholar
SIZOO, E.A. and EGMOND, H.P.V. (2005) Analysis of duplicate 24-hour diet samples for aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1 and Ochratoxin A. Food Additives and Contaminants 22: 163-172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SMITH, E.E., KUBENA, L.F., BRAITHEWAITE, C.E., HARVEY, R.B., PHILLIPS, T.D. and REINE, A.H. (1992) Toxicological evaluation of aflatoxin and cyclopiazonic acid in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 71: 1136-1144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SOLCAN, C., COMAN, I. and SOLCAN, G.H. (2008) Histological lesions of the liver in chicken's ochratoxicosis. Lucrari Stiinłifice Medicina Veterinara 8: 898-903.Google Scholar
SOUSA, A.H., FARONI, L.R.D.A., GUEDES, R.N.C., TOTOLA, M.R. and URRUCHI, W.I. (2008) Ozone as a management alternative against phosphine-resistant insect pests of stored products. Journal of Stored Products Research 44: 379-385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SRAVANAN, S., SUKUMAR, S., ARULMOZHI, A. and MOHAN, B. (2006) Immunosuppressive effect of aflatoxin B1 against inactivated RD vaccine titre in layers. Compendium of invited and papers and abstracts and souvenir, XXIII Indian Association of Veterinary Pathologist Conference, 27-29, December 2006, Chennai.Google Scholar
SREEMANNARAYAMA, O., MARQUARDT, R.R., FROHLICH, A.A., ABRAMSON, D. and PHILLIPS, G. (1989) Organ weights, liver constituents and serum components in growing chicks fed ochratoxin A. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 18: 404-410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
STOEV, S.D., ANGUELOV, G., IVANOV, I. and PAVLOV, D. (2000) Influence of ochratoxin A and an extract of artichoke on the vaccinal immunity and health in broiler chicks. Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology 52: 43-55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
STOEV, S.D., DJUVINOV, D., MIRTCHEVA, T., PAVLOV, D. and MANTLE, P. (2002) Studies on some feed additives giving partial protection against ochratoxin A toxicity in chicks. Toxicology Letters 135: 33-50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TEDESCO, D., STEIDLER, S., GALLETTI, S., TAMENI, M., SONZOGNI, D. and RAVAROTTO, L. (2004) Efficacy of silymarin-phospholipid complex in reducing the toxicity of Aflatoxin B1 in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 83: 1839-1843.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TEJADA-CASTANEDA, Z.I., AVILA-GONZALEZ, E., CASAUBON-HUGUENIN, M.T., CERVANTES- OLIVARES, R.A., VASQUEZ-PELAEZ, C., HERNANDEZ-BAUMGARTEN, E.M. and MORENO-MARTINEZ, E. (2008) Biodetoxification of aflatoxin-contaminated chick feed. Poultry Science 87: 1569-1576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
THE MERCK VETERINARY MANUAL, , Ninth Edition, Merck & Co. Inc. and Whitehouse Station NJ.Google Scholar
TORRES, A.M., RAMIREZ, M.L., ARROYO, M., CHULZE S.N., and MAGAN, N. (2003) Potential use of antioxidants for control of growth and fumonisin production by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum on whole maize grain. International Journal of Food Microbiology 83: 319-324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
VERMA, J., JOHRI, T.S., SWAIN, B.K. and AMEENA, S. (2004) Effect of graded levels of aflatoxin, ochratoxin and their combination on the performance and immune response of broilers. British Poultry Science 45: 512-518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WEN, Z., DUMAS, E.T., SCHRIEBER, J.S., HAWKE, R.L., FRIED, M.W. and SMITH, P.C. (2008) Pharmacokinetics and Metabolic profile of free, conjugated, and total silymarin flavonolignans in human plasma after oral administration of milk thistle extract. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 36: 65-72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WILASRUSMEE, C., KITTUR, S., SHAH, G., SIDDIQUI, J., BRUCH, D., WILASRUSMEE, S. and KITTUR, D.S. (2002) Immunostimulatory effect of Silybum Marianum (milk thistle) extract. Medical Science Monitor 8: 439-443.Google ScholarPubMed
WILLIAMS, J.H., PHILLIPS, T.D., JOLLY, P.E., STILE, J.K., JOLLY, C.M. and AGGARWAL, D. (2004) . Human aflatoxicosis in developing countries: a review of toxicology, exposure, potential health consequences and interaction. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80: 1106-1122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
YAPAR, K., KART, A., KARAPEHLIVAN, M., ATAKISI, O., TUNCA, R., ERGINSOY, S. and CITIL, M. (2007) Hepatoprotective effect of L-carnitine against acute acetaminophen toxicity in mice. Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology 59: 121-128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
YATIM, A.M. and SACHAN, D.S. (2001) Carnitine alters binding of aflatoxin to DNA and proteins in rat hepatocytes and cell free systems. Journal of Nutrition 131: 1903-1908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed