Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-c4f8m Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-18T08:42:07.085Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Aspects of food intake restriction in young domestic fowl: metabolic and genetic considerations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

I. Nir ,
Z. Nitsan ,
E.A. Dunnington  and
P.B. Siegel
I. Nir
Affiliation:
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Sciences, P.O. Box 12, Rehovot, 76100, Israel
Z. Nitsan
Affiliation:
Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
E.A. Dunnington
Affiliation:
Animal and Poultry Sciences Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0306, USA
P.B. Siegel*
Affiliation:
Animal and Poultry Sciences Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0306, USA
*
*Corresponding author.
Get access

Abstract

This paper reviews the literature on the response of young domestic fowl to various food restriction patterns. Emphasis has been given to anatomical, endocrine and immunological factors and their interactions with the genetic background. Under restricted feeding (limitation of the amount or time of access to food) chickens learn quickly to ingest the allocated quantity of food within a short period of time. When exposed to a single sequence of food removal and restoration, body weight losses are reduced for non-adapted compared with adapted individuals, for light breeds compared with heavy breeds, and for older compared with younger chickens. Adaptation to food restriction includes increased capacity and slower evacuation of the gastrointestinal tract (mainly the storage organs) to increase the supply of nutrients during the periods of food deprivation; increased hepatic lipogenesis and glycogen synthesis during the feeding cycle; and decreased heat loss on days of food deprivation. Synthesis and secretion of digestive enzymes in response to intermittent feeding has been found to be population dependent and consistent with the hypothesis that the amount of intestinal chyme mediates the synthesis and excretion of digestive enzymes from the pancreas. Numerous hormones are directly or indirectly involved in the metabolic responses to food restriction. Hyperinsulinaemia, increased plasma levels of growth hormone, triiodothyronine, thyroxine and plasma prolactin have been observed after the reintroduction of full feeding. It is suggested that the altered hormonal environment induced by food restriction contributes to a metabolic situation that may enhance immunocompetence.

Keywords

Chickenscompensatory growthdomestic fowldigestive enzymesfeed restrictionfood intakeimmunocompetence
Type
Research Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 52 , Issue 3 , November 1996 , pp. 251 - 266
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ballay, M., Dunnington, E.A., Gross, W.B. and Siegel, P.B. (1992) Restricted feeding and broiler performance: age at initiation and length of restriction. Poultry Science 71: 440–447CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barash, I., Nitsan, Z. and Nir, I. (1992) Metabolic and behavioural adaptation of light-bodied chicks to meal feeding. British Poultry Science 33: 271–278CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barash, I., Nitsan, Z. and Nir, I. (1993) Adaptation of light-bodied chicks to meal-feeding: gastrointestinal tract and pancreatic enzymes. British Poultry Science 34: 35–42CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbato, G.F. (1994) Genetic control of food intake in chickens. Journal of Nutrition 124: 1341S–1348SCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbato, G.F., Siegel, P.B., Cherry, J.A. and Nir, I. (1984) Selection of body weight at eight weeks of age. 17. Overfeeding. Poultry Science 63: 11–18CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beisel, W.R. (1977) Metabolic and nutritional consequences of infection. In: Advances in Nutritional Research (Ed. Draper, H.H.), Plenum Press, New York, pp.125–144CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boa-Amponsem, K., Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1991a) Genotype, feeding regimen and diet interactions in meat chickens. 1. Growth, organ size, and feed utilization. Poultry Science 70: 680–688CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boa-Amponsem, K., O'sullivan, N.P., Gross, E.A., Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1991b) Genotype, feeding regimen, and diet interactions in meat chickens. 3. General fitness. Poultry Science 70: 697–701CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burkhart, C.A., Cherry, J.A., Van Krey, H.P. and Siegel, P.B. (1983) Genetic selection for growth rate alters hypothalamic satiety mechanisms in chickens. Behavior Genetics 13: 295–300CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cherry, J.A., Nir, I., Jones, D.E., Dunnington, E.A., Nitsan, Z. and Siegel, P.B. (1987) Growth-associated traits in parental and F1 populations of chickens under different feeding programs. 1. Ad libitum feeding. Poultry Science 66: 1–9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohn, C. (1963) Feeding frequency and body composition. Annals of New York Academy of Science 110: 395–409CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohn, C., Shrago, E. and Joseph, D. (1955) The effect of food administration on weight gains on body composition of normal and adrenalectomized rats. American Journal of Physiology 180: 503–507CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohn, C., Pick, R. and Katz, L.N. (1961) Effect of meal eating compared to nibbling upon atherosclerosis in chickens. Circulation Research 9: 139–145CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, M.E. (1991) Nutrition and the immune response of the domestic fowl. Critical Reviews Poultry Biology 3: 167–189Google Scholar
Corring, T. (1980) The adaptation of digestive enzymes to the diet: Its physiological significance. Reproduction, Nutrition and Development 20: 1217–1235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doskocil, J. (1967) Effect of different frequency of food intake on the weight and chemical composition of body and gastro-intestinal tract in chickens. Acta Veterinaria Facultatis Medicinae Veterinaria Universitatis Belgradensis 36: 429–437Google Scholar
Dror, Y., Nir, I. and Nitsan, Z. (1977) Relative growth of internal organs in light and heavy breeds. British Poultry Science 18: 493–496CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunnington, E.A., Nir, I., Cherry, J.A., Jones, D.E. and Siegel, P.B. (1987) Growth associated traits in parental and F1 populations of chickens under different feeding regimes. 3. Eating behavior and body temperatures. Poultry Science 66: 23–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fabry, P. (1955) Studies on the adaptation of metabolism. I. On the glycogen reserves of rats accustomed to interrupted starvation. Physiology Bohemoslov 4: 33–36Google ScholarPubMed
Fabry, P. (1967) Metabolic consequences of the pattern of food intake. In: Handbook of Physiology, Vol. 1 (Eds Code, C.F. and Heidel, W.), American Physiological Society, Washington, DCGoogle Scholar
Feigenbaum, A.S., Fisher, H. and Weiss, H.S. (1962) Effect of ‘meal eating’ versus ‘nibbling’ on body composition and digestive organ weight of normal and croptomized chickens. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 11: 312–316CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foltzer, C. and Mialhe, P. (1976) Pituitary and adrenal control of pancreatic endocrine function in the duck. 2. Plasma free fatty acids and insulin variation following hypophysectomy and replacement therapy with growth hormone and corticosterone. Diabetes Metabolism 2: 101–105Google ScholarPubMed
Freeman, B.M., Manning, A.C.C. and Flack, I.H. (1981) The effects of restricted feeding on adrenal cortical activity in the immature domestic fowl. British Poultry Science 22: 295–303CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goolad, R.A., Plumb, J.A. and Wright, N.A. (1987) The relationship between intestinal crypt cell production and intestinal water absorption measure in vitro in the rat. Clinical Science 72: 297–304CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, G.M. and Lyman, R.C. (1972) Feed back regulation of pancreatic enzyme secretion as a mechanism for trypsin inhibitor induced hypersecretion in rats. Proceedings of Society Experimental Biology and Medicine 148: 897–903Google Scholar
Griminger, P., Villamil, V. and Fisher, H. (1969) The meal eating response of the chicken. Journal of Nutrition 11: 368–374CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, W.B. (1983) Chicken-environment interactions. In: Ethics and Animals (Eds Miller, H.B. and Williams, W.H.), Humana Press, Clifton, pp.329–337CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, W.B. and Siegel, H.S. (1983) Evaluation of heterophil/lymphocyte ratio as a measure of stress in chickens. Avian Diseases 27: 972–979CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, W.B. and Siegel, P.B. (1986) Effect of initial and secondary periods of fasting on heterophil/lymphocyte ratios and body weight. Avian Diseases 30: 345–346CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Han, P.F.S. and Smyth, J.R. Jr. (1972) The influence of restricted feed intake on the response of chickens to Marek's disease. Poultry Science 51: 986–990CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harden, R.L. and Oscar, T.P. (1993) Thyroid hormone and growth hormone regulation of broiler adipocyte lipolysis. Poultry Science 72: 669–676CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, S. and Scanes, C.G. (1977) Variations in growth hormone secretion in domestic fowls following the administration of various hormones, drugs and nutrient metabolites. Journal of Endocrinology 75: 50PGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, S. and Scanes, C.G. (1979) Plasma growth hormone concentrations in growth-retarded cortisone treated chickens. British Poultry Science 20: 331–335CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, S., Scanes, C.G., Chadwick, A. and Bolton, N.J. (1978) Influence of fasting, glucose and insulin on the levels of growth hormone and prolactin in the plasma of the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus). Journal of Endocrinology 76: 501–506CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huybrechts, L.M., Decuypere, E., Buyse, J., Kuhn, E.R. and Tixier-Boichard, M. (1992) Effect of recombinant human insulin-like growth factor-1 on weight gain, fat content, and hormonal parameters in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 71: 181–187CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hulan, W.H. and Bird, F.H. (1972) Effect of fat levels in isonitrogenous diets on the composition of avian pancreatic juice. Journal of Nutrition 102: 459–468CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katanbaf, M.N., Siegel, P.B. and Gross, W.B. (1987) Research note: Prior experience and response of chickens to a streptococcal infection. Poultry Science 66: 2053–2055CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katanbaf, M.N., Siegel, P.B. and Dunnington, E.A. (1988a) Allomorphic relationships from hatch to 56 days of age in parental lines and F1 crosses selected 27 generations for high and low body weight. Growth, Development and Aging 52: 11–22Google ScholarPubMed
Katanbaf, M.N., Siegel, P.B. and Dunnington, E.A. (1988b) Organ growth of selected lines of chickens and their F1 crosses to a common body weight and age. Theoretical Applied Genetics 76: 540–544CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katanbaf, M.N., Jones, D.E., Dunnington, E.A., Gross, W.B. and Siegel, P.B. (1988c) Anatomical and physiological responses of early and late feathering broiler chickens responses to various feeding regimes. Archiv für Geflugelkunde 68: 344–351Google Scholar
Katanbaf, M.N., Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1989) Restricted feeding in late-feathering chickens. 1. Growth and physiological responses. Poultry Science 68: 344–351CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, K. (1987) Effects of different methods of severity of growing period feed restriction on growth and laying performance of White Leghorns. Poultry Science 66: 694–699CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leeson, S. and Summers, J.D. (1981) Dietary self selection and use of reverse protein diet for developing broiler breeder poults. Poultry Science 60: 168–171CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lepkovsky, S. and Yasuda, M. (1966) Hypothalamic lesions, growth and body composition of male chickens. Poultry Science 45: 582–588CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lepkovsky, S., Clare-Briton, A., Lyman, R.L. and Dimick, M.K. (1960a) Food intake, water intake and body water regulation. Poultry Science 39: 390–394CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lepkovsky, S., Clare-Briton, A., Lemmon, R.M., Ostwald, R.C. and Dimick, M.K. (1960b) Metabolic and anatomic adaptation of chicks ‘trained’ to eat daily food in two hours. Poultry Science 39: 385–389CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leveille, G.A. (1966) Glycogen metabolism in meal-fed rats and chicks and the sequence of lipogenic and enzymatic adaptive changes. Journal of Nutrition 90: 449–460CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leveille, G.A. and Hanson, J.A. (1965) Influence of periodicity of eating in the chicken. American Journal of Physiology 209: 153–157CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leveille, G.A., Romsos, D.R., Yeh, Y. and O'hea, K. (1975) Lipid biosynthesis in the chick: A consideration of site of synthesis, influence of diet and possible regulatory mechanisms. Poultry Science 54: 1075–1093CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lilja, C. (1983) A comparative study of postnatal growth and organ development in some species of birds. Growth 47: 317–329Google ScholarPubMed
Mahagna, M. and Nir, I. (1996) Comparative development of digestive organs, intestinal disaccharidases, and some blood metabolites in broiler and layer-type chicks after hatching. British Poultry Science 37: 359–372CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marks, H.L. (1980) Water and feed intake of selected and nonselected broilers under ad libitum and restricted feeding regimes. Growth 44: 205–219Google Scholar
Marks, H.L. (1981) Role of water in regulating feed intake and feed efficiency of broilers. Poultry Science 60: 698–707CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marks, H.L. (1986) The role of water intake on sexual dimorphism for early growth of broilers. Poultry Science 65: 433–435CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marks, H.L. (1987) Sexual dimorphism in broilers following periods of equal water and feed intake. Poultry Science 66: 381–389CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marks, H.L. and Brody, T. (1984) Intakes of feed and water following restriction in selected and nonselected broilers. Poultry Science 63: 2307–2317CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maxwell, M.H., Hocking, P.M. and Robertson, G.W. (1992) Differential leucocyte responses to various degrees of food restriction in broilers, turkeys and ducks. British Poultry Science 3: 177–187CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, J.D. (1978) Effect of fasting on T3 and T4 concentrations in chicken serum. General and Comparative Endocrinology 34: 323–327CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
May, J.D. (1980) Effect of dietary thyroid hormones on growth and feed efficiency in broilers. Poultry Science 59: 1721–1724CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meier, A.H. (1977) Prolactin, the liporegulatory hormone. In: Comparative Endocrinology of Prolactin. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Vol. 80 (Eds Dellman, H.D., Johnson, J.A. and Klachko, D.M.), Plenum Press, New York, pp.158–171Google Scholar
Nir, I. and Nitsan, Z. (1979) Metabolic and anatomical adaptations of light bodied chicks to intermittent feeding. British Poultry Science 20: 61–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nir, I., Levy, V. and Perek, M. (1973) Response of plasma glucose, free fatty acids and triglycerides to starving and re-feeding in cockerels and geese. British Poultry Science 14: 263–268CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nir, I., Nitsan, Z., Dror, Y. and Shapira, N. (1978) Influence of overfeeding on growth, obesity and intestinal tract in young chicks of light and heavy breeds. British Journal of Nutrition 39: 27–35CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nir, I., Ptichi, I. and Nitsan, Z. (1979) Body composition, food utilization, intestinal adaptation and lipogenesis in meal-fed chicks. In: Food Intake Regulation in Poultry (Eds Boorman, K.N. and Freeman, B.M.), Poultry Science Ltd, pp. 391–403Google Scholar
Nir, I., Harvey, S., Nitsan, Z., Pinchasov, Y. and Chadwick, A. (1983) Effect of intermittent feeding on blood plasma growth hormone and prolactin in chickens of a heavy breed. British Poultry Science 24: 63–70CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nir, I., Harvey, S., Cherry, J.A., Dunnington, E.A., Klandorf, H. and Siegel, P.B. (1987a) Growth-associated traits in parental and F1 populations of chickens under different feeding programs. 4. Growth and thyroid hormones. Poultry Science 66: 32–37CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nir, I., Nitsan, Z., Cherry, J.A., Dunnington, E.A., Jones, D.E. and Siegel, P.B. (1987b) Growth-associated traits in parental and F1 populations of chickens under different feeding programs. 2. Ad libitum and intermittent feeding. Poultry Science 66: 10–22CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nir, I., Nitsan, Z. and Mahagna, M. (1993) Comparative growth and development of the digestive organs and of some enzymes in broiler and egg type chicks after hatching. British Poultry Science 34: 523–532CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nitsan, Z., Ptichi, I. and Nir, I. (1984) The effect of meal-feeding and food restriction on body composition, food utilization and intestinal adaptation in light-breed chicks. British Journal of Nutrition 51: 101–109CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nitsan, Z., Ben-Avraham, G., Zoref, Z. and Nir, I. (1991a) Growth and development of the digestive organs and some enzymes in broiler chicks after hatching. British Poultry Science 32: 515–523CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nitsan, Z., Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1991b) Organ growth and digestive enzyme levels to fifteen days of age in lines of chickens differing in body weight. Poultry Science 70: 2040–2048CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'sullivan, N.P., Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1991) Performance of early and late feathering broiler breeder females with different feeding regimens. British Poultry Science 32: 981–995CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'sullivan, N.P., Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1992a) Correlated responses of lines divergently selected for 56-day body weight. 1. Growth, feed intake, and feed utilization. Poultry Science 71: 590–597CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'sullivan, N.P., Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1992b) Correlated responses of lines divergently selected for 56-day body weight. 2. Organ growth, DNA, and protein content. Poultry Science 71: 598–609CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palo, P.E., Sell, J.L., Piquer, F.J., Soto-Salanova, M.F. and Vilaseca, L. (1995) Effect of early nutrient restriction on broiler chickens. 1. Performance and development of the digestive tract. Poultry Science 74: 88–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinchasov, Y., Nir, I. and Nitsan, Z. (1985) Metabolic and anatomical adaptation of heavy bodied chicks to intermittent feeding. 1. Food intake, growth rate, organ weight and body composition. Poultry Science 64: 2098–2109CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinchasov, Y., Nir, I. and Nitsan, Z. (1987a) Muscle protein synthesis and degradation in chicks adapted to intermittent feeding: in vitro studies. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 31: 362–366CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinchasov, Y., Nir, I. and Nitsan, Z. (1987b) Water intake and water concentration in the body and gastrointestinal tract of intermittently fed broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 28: 287–294CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinchasov, Y., Nir, I and Nitsan, Z. (1988) The synthesis in vivo of proteins in various tissues in chickens adapted to intermittent feeding. British Journal of Nutrition 60: 517–523CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinchasov, Y., Nir, I. and Nitsan, Z. (1989) Muscle growth and composition in heavy and light breed chickens adapted to intermittent feeding. British Journal of Nutrition 61: 245–256CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinchasov, Y., Nir, I. and Nitsan, Z. (1992) Metabolic and anatomical adaptations of heavy bodied chicks to intermittent feeding. 2. Pancreatic digestive enzymes. British Poultry Science 31: 769–777CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prader, A., Tanner, J.M. and Von Harnack, G.A. (1963) Catch-up growth following illness or starvation: An example of developmental canalization in man. Journal of Pediatrics 62: 646–659CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Qureshi, M.A. and Havenstein, G.B. (1994) A comparison of the immune performance of a 1991 commercial broiler with a 1957 randombred strain when fed typical 1957 and 1991 broiler diets. Poultry Science 73: 1805–1812CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rabinowitz, T., Merimee, T.J., Nelson, J.K., Shultz, R.B. and Burgess, J.A. (1978) The influence of proteins and amino acids on growth hormone release in man. In: Growth Hormones (Eds Pecile, A. and Muller, E.E.), Excerpta Medica Foundation, Amsterdam, pp.105–115Google Scholar
Scanes, C.G., Harvey, S., Chadwick, A. and Newcomer, W.S. (1976) Endocrine studies in young chickens of the obese strain. General and Comparative Endocrinology 30: 419–423CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shackelford, J.E. and Lebherz, H.L. (1981) Effect of denervation on the levels and rates of synthesis of specific enzymes in fast-twitch (breast) muscle fibers of the chicken. Journal of Biological Chemistry 256: 6423–6429CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeland, V. (1887) Ueber die nachwirkung der nahrungs entziechung auf die ernahrung. Biol. Zentr. 7: 145–281Google Scholar
Sell, J.L., Angel, C.R., Piquer, F.J., Mallarino, E.G. and Al-Batshab, H.A. (1991) Developmental patterns of selected characteristics of the gastrointestinal tract of young turkeys. Poultry Science 70: 1200–1205CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegel, H.S. (1985) Immunological responses as indicators of stress. World's Poultry Science Journal 41: 36–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegel, H.S. (1994) Stress, strain and resistance. British Poultry Science 36: 3–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegel, H.S. and Van Kampen, M. (1984) Energy relationships in growing chickens given injections of corticosterone. British Poultry Science 25: 477–485CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simon, J. and Blum, J.C. (1972) Etude de l'influence de jeunes periodiques sur la croissance, la glycemie, quelques caracteristiques du metabolisme hepatique et la composition corporelle du poulet. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 50: 621–633CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, J. and Brisson, G.H. (1972) Effect of two types of feed restriction, intermittent total starvation or intermittent protein starvation on growth, lipogenesis and fatty acid composition of liver and adipose tissue in chicks. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 50: 634–644CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simon, J. and Rosselin, G. (1979) Effect of intermittent feeding on glucose-insulin relationship in the chicken. Journal of Nutrition 109: 631–641CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simon, J., Blum, J.C. and Jacqot, R. (1968) Etude des effets de l'alimentation discontinue chez le poulet: variations ponderales et composition corporelle. Compte rendu hebdomadaire des seances de l'Academie d'Agriculture de France 267D: 2002–2004Google Scholar
Smith, M.W., Mitchell, M.A. and Peacock, M.A. (1990) Effects of genetic selection on growth rate and intestinal structure in the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus). Comparative Biochemical Physiology 97A: 57–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snook, J.T. (1968) Pancreatic adaptation to change in dietary protein source in rats fed at different frequencies. Journal of Nutrition 94: 351–360CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Summers, J.D., Leeson, S. and Spratt, D. (1987) Rearing early maturing pullets. Poultry Science 66: 1750–1757CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tepperman, J., Brobeck, J.R. and Long, C.N.H. (1943) The effects of hypothalamic hyperphagia and of alterations in feeding habits on the metabolism of the albino rat. Yale Journal of Biological Medicine 15: 855–874Google Scholar
Tobar-Dupres, E.T., Froman, D.P. and Davis, S.L. (1993) Factors affecting circulating growth hormone binding protein in chickens. Poultry Science 72: 2337–2346CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vasilatos-Younken, R. and Scanes, C.G. (1991) Growth hormone and insulin-like growth factors in poultry growth: required, optimal or ineffective. Poultry Science 70: 1764–1780CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vasilatos-Younken, R. and Zarkower, P.G. (1987) Age-related changes in plasma immunoreactive growth hormone secretory patterns in broiler pullets. Growth 51: 171–180Google ScholarPubMed
Vasilatos-Younken, R., Grey, K.S., Bacon, W.L., Nestor, K.E., Long, D.W. and Rosenberg, J.L. (1990) Ontogeny of growth hormone (GH) binding in the domestic turkey: evidence of sexual dimorphism and developmental changes in relationship to plasma GH. Journal of Endocrinology 126: 131–139CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, P.N. and Osbourn, D.F. (1960) Compensatory growth after undernutrition in mammals and birds. Biology Reviews 35: 324–363CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zulkifli, I. and Siegel, P.B. (1995) Is there a positive side to stress? World's Poultry Science Journal 51: 63–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zulkifli, I., Dunnington, E.A., Gross, W.B., Larsen, A.S., Martin, A. and Siegel, P.B. (1993) Responses of dwarf and normal chickens to feed restriction, Eimeria tenella infection, and sheep red blood cell antigen. Poultry Science 72: 1630–1640CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zulkifli, I., Dunnington, E.A., Gross, W.B. and Siegel, P.B. (1994a) Food restriction early in life, and its effect on adaptability, disease resistance, and immunocompetence of heat-stressed dwarf and nondwarf chickens. British Poultry Science 35: 203–213CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zulkifli, I., Dunnington, E.A., Gross, W.B. and Siegel, P.B. (1994b) Inhibition of adrenal steroidogenesis, food restriction and acclimation to high ambient temperatures in chickens. British Poultry Science 35: 417–426CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zulkifli, I., Siegel, H.S., Mashaly, M.M., Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1995) Inhibition of adrenal steroidogenesis, neonatal feed restriction, and pituitary-adrenal axis response to subsequent fasting in chickens. General and Comparative Endocrinology 97: 49–56CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed