Field studies were conducted in 1999, 2000, and 2001 to evaluate weed control and cotton response from PRE herbicides followed by (fb) trifloxysulfuron POST. In the first study, trifloxysulfuron at 3.8, 7.5, or 15 gai/ha was applied POST with or without pendimethalin at 690 gai/ha applied PRE in a factorial treatment arrangement. Visible crop injury occurred after all trifloxysulfuron applications, but injury was not affected by application of pendimethalin PRE. Cotton injury was 19 to 22% 7 d after POST treatment (DAT) from trifloxysulfuron at 3.8 to 15 g/ha but was 5 to 12% 28 DAT. Trifloxysulfuron controlled smooth pigweed, common ragweed, and common cocklebur, but spurred anoda, large crabgrass, goosegrass, and stinkgrass were not controlled by trifloxysulfuron. Morningglory species (tall morningglory, ivyleaf morningglory, and pitted morningglory) control with trifloxysulfuron at 7.5 and 15 g/ha was at least 79%, whereas velvetleaf was controlled 66% over all years. In a second study, clomazone, pendimethalin, pendimethalin plus fluometuron, pyrithiobac, or flumioxazin were applied PRE fb 7.5 g/ha trifloxysulfuron POST. Cotton injury from PRE herbicides fb trifloxysulfuron was 13 to 39% 7 DAT. Spurred anoda control exceeded 54% only with treatments that included flumioxazin or pyrithiobac PRE. Common lambsquarters, common cocklebur, and morningglory species were controlled at least 75% with all treatments that included trifloxysulfuron POST, whereas pendimethalin and clomazone usually controlled annual grasses. In both studies, the application of pendimethalin PRE controlled annual grass species and improved control of smooth pigweed and common lambsquarters over that controlled by trifloxysulfuron POST without a PRE herbicide.

Watermelon growers rotate crops to prevent problems, but weed populations in new fields may hold unexpected control challenges. Having effective POST herbicides would provide growers an opportunity to respond to emerging weeds on an as-needed basis. To address this need, field studies were conducted over 4 yr in Oklahoma to determine efficacy and crop response of POST halosulfuron applications to direct-seeded watermelon that received PRE application of ethalfluralin at 840 g/ha. At 5 wk after crop emergence (WAE) halosulfuron was applied at 18, 27, 36, and 54 g/ha. The 27 g/ha rate was also applied at 1, 2, 3 and 7 WAE. Halosulfuron applications made 5 WAE did not provide acceptable (> 80%) control of pigweeds and cutleaf groundcherry regardless of rate. Applications made 1 WAE provided significantly better control of pigweeds and cutleaf groundcherry than did later applications. Halosulfuron treatments of 36 and 54 g/ha made 5 WAE and of 27 g/ha made 1, 2 and 3 WAE did not result in significant yield increases compared with the hand-weeded check. These studies show that POST halosulfuron application may be a useful treatment for direct-seeded watermelon. This option would enable more judicious use of herbicides and possible reduction in production costs.

Variability in glyphosate efficacy has been observed following late day field applications, but the influence of this “time-of-day effect” on weed control and soybean yield is unknown. Additionally, the basis for differences in weed control due to application time of day has not been fully elucidated. In field trials, broadleaf weed biomass was ≥5-fold greater when glyphosate was applied at 6:00 A.M. compared to 6:00 P.M. in three of four site–years. No consistent time-of-day effect was observed on treated grass weeds. Soybean yield was unaffected by treatments, and was similar to the weed-free control. In a greenhouse study, both barnyardgrass and velvetleaf biomass were as much as 25 to 80% greater when glyphosate was applied at 8:00 P.M. vs. 2:00 P.M. Examination of individual components of the time-of-day effect for velvetleaf indicated that leaf angle and time of application accounted for 82 and 18%, respectively, of the biomass change. This research suggests that diurnal changes in leaf movement of velvetleaf account for much of the time-of-day effect, with the remainder likely due to an unknown physiological component.

Wild oat and green foxtail are the two most abundant weeds and the most economically important herbicide-resistant grass weeds in the northern Great Plains of western Canada. Farmers in this region rarely proactively manage these weed species to prevent or delay the selection for herbicide resistance; they usually increase the adoption of integrated weed management practices only after intergroup herbicide resistance has evolved. The effectiveness of herbicide and nonherbicide practices to proactively or reactively manage herbicide-resistant wild oat and green foxtail are described, based on a decade of field trials, field-scale experiments, and field surveys in western Canada. Nonherbicide weed management practices or nonselective herbicides applied preplant or in crop, integrated with less frequent selective herbicide use in diversified cropping systems, have mitigated the evolution, spread, and economic impact of herbicide-resistant wild oat and green foxtail.

Caucasian old world bluestem (OWB), seeded for conservation and forage production, has escaped into rangelands in the southern and central Great Plains. Glyphosate, imazapic, imazapyr, imazethapyr, and sulfometuron methyl herbicides were applied at the four- to five-leaf stage and again 8 wk later in 2003 and 2005 to control Caucasian OWB. Glyphosate at 1.14 kg ai/ha at each application was the only treatment that reduced frequency and tiller density of Caucasian OWB, and also controlled over 80% of growth, at 6 wk after the first treatment (WAT) both years. After the first autumn frost, plots treated with glyphosate and imazapyr at 0.28 kg ai/ha at each application had lower frequency and much greater suppression of Caucasian OWB growth than plots treated with other herbicides. Tiller densities and seedhead densities were also less in plots treated with glyphosate and imazapyr compared to other herbicides and the nontreated control. Biomass at the end of the season was near zero for plots treated with glyphosate and imazapyr in 2003, and 26 to 46% of the nontreated control biomass in 2005. Frequency of Caucasian OWB the year following treatment was less than 5% for both glyphosate and imazapyr. Broadcast application of glyphosate and imazapyr also controlled remnant native vegetation in plots, thus different application methods, such as ropewick application, may be useful to avoid native grass injury.

The objective of this research was to determine the potential use of commercially available multispectral images to detect weeds at low densities during the critical period of weed control. Common lambsquarters seedlings were transplanted into plots of glyphosate-resistant corn at 0, 1, 2, and 4 plants/m2 at two sites, Agronomy Center for Research and Extension (ACRE) and Meig's Horticultural Research Farm at the Throckmorton–Purdue Agricultural Center (TPAC), in Indiana. Aerial multispectral images (12 to 16 cm pixel resolution) were taken 18 and 32 days after planting (DAP) at ACRE and 19 and 32 DAP at TPAC. Corn and common lambsquarters could not be reliably detected and differentiated at either site when weeds were 9 cm or less in height. However, economic threshold densities (2 and 4 plants/m2) of common lambsquarters could be distinguished from weed-free plots at TPAC when weeds were 17 cm in height. At this height, common lambsquarters plants were beyond the optimal height for glyphosate application, but could still be readily controlled with higher rates. Results from this study indicate that commercially available multispectral aerial imagery at current spatial resolutions does not provide consistently reliable data for detection of early season weeds in glyphosate-resistant corn cropping systems. Additional refinement in sensor spatial and spectral resolution is necessary to increase our ability to successfully detect early season weed infestations.

Chemical options for weed control in commercial cowpea production are limited. Repeated long-term use of the acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitor, imazethapyr, has resulted in selection for ALS-resistant populations of Palmer amaranth. Experiments were conducted at Bixby, OK, and Kibler, AR, from 2001 to 2003 to evaluate the tolerance of cowpea cultivars and advanced breeding lines to fomesafen, a potential alternative for controlling ALS-resistant Palmer amaranth and other problematic broadleaf weeds. Eight commercial cultivars and 42 advanced breeding lines were entered in the preliminary screening, using 0.84 kg/ha fomesafen. Six breeding lines were selected for the first replicated trial and three (00-582, 00-584, and 00-609) were advanced to across-location experiments. Fomesafen doses of 0, 0.17, 0.34, and 0.67 kg/ha were tested across locations. ‘Early Scarlet’ was used as commercial standard. The advanced lines had equal or higher yield potential (1,182 to 1,936 kg/ha) than Early Scarlet (1,108 kg/ha) across locations. Of the cultivars tested, line 00-609 was the best yielder, whereas 00-584 had the highest tolerance to fomesafen. At the commercial fomesafen rate of 0.34 kg/ha, 00-584 had higher yield (974 and 1,735 kg/ha, respectively, at Bixby, OK, and Kibler, AR) than the nontreated, weed-free, Early Scarlet. Thus, fomesafen can be used on the tolerant line, 00-584, without reducing yield potential relative to Early Scarlet.

Blackgrass is the most important herbicide-resistant weed in Europe, occurring in 10 countries. Enhanced metabolism is the most common mechanism, conferring partial resistance to a wide range of herbicides, but acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) target-site resistance also occurs widely. Recently, acetolactate synthase (ALS) target-site resistance conferred by a Pro197 mutation was identified in blackgrass in England and is of concern because of increasing use of sulfonylurea herbicides such as mesosulfuron + iodosulfuron. Resistance management strategies encourage (1) greater use of cultural control measures such as plowing, crop rotation, and delayed drilling; (2) reduced reliance on high-risk herbicides (ACCase, ALS); and (3) use of mixtures and sequences of herbicides with different modes of action. A key message is that, as weeds are relatively immobile, preventing and managing herbicide resistance is largely within the individual farmer's own control. In practice, financial and environmental pressures limit the scope for more cultural control, and the European Community Pesticide Review will result in fewer alternative herbicides being available. Consultants often feel unable to recommend lower risk but weaker herbicide strategies to farmers because the amount of blackgrass remaining might be unacceptable. This dilemma is exemplified by the recent introduction of a formulated mixture of mesosulfuron + iodosulfuron, which has given outstanding control of blackgrass. Farmers expect new herbicides to become available, but this optimistic view appears misplaced. A primary aim is to continue to encourage farmers to integrate cultural and chemical control in a long-term strategy.

Common dandelion has developed into a troublesome agronomic weed for no-tillage corn producers. A postemergence herbicide application is often required to reduce common dandelion competition. Field experiments were conducted in 2002 and 2003 to evaluate 22 postemergence herbicide treatments for efficacy on established populations of common dandelion in no-tillage corn. All herbicides were applied to five- to six-collar corn at registered rates with typical adjuvants. At 28 d after treatment (DAT) the most effective treatments included glufosinate and mesotrione providing at least 76% control of common dandelion. All other herbicide treatments provided less than 40% common dandelion control 28 DAT. Common dandelion control was evaluated 56 DAT when regrowth of treated plants was observed for some herbicide treatments. AT 56 DAT, dicamba + diflufenzopyr was the most effective treatment, providing 83% control of common dandelion. In 2002, all herbicide treatments, with the exception of flumiclorac, resulted in corn yields greater than the nontreated.

Experiments were conducted in 2004 and 2005 in Virginia to evaluate KIH-485 for shattercane control. KIH-485 was applied to glyphosate-resistant corn at three rates (166, 209, and 250 g ai/ha) and two timings (preemergence [PRE] and postemergence [POST]) and compared to standard rates of S-metolachlor, acetochlor, and pendimethalin. PRE treatments were applied alone, while POST treatments were combined with 1,121 g ai/ha of glyphosate. A single POST application of glyphosate, a nontreated weedy control (WC), and a weed-free control (WFC) were also evaluated. In 2004, at 1 mo after planting (MAP), shattercane was controlled 73, 86, and 93% with the three PRE treatments of KIH-485 compared to only 50, 49, and 48% control with S-metolachlor, acetochlor, and pendimethalin, respectively. Similar levels of shattercane control were also observed with these treatments at 1 MAP in 2005. In both years at 4 MAP, KIH-485 combined with glyphosate applied POST controlled shattercane 96% or greater. However, when glyphosate was combined with S-metolachlor, acetochlor, or pendimethalin, shattercane control was less than 88% in either year. Corn yields with POST applications of KIH-485 plus glyphosate were equivalent to yield from the WFC and greater than yield from any PRE treatment. Early-season shattercane control was promising with KIH-485; however, season-long control only occurred when KIH-485 was applied POST in combination with glyphosate.

Rattail fescue, a winter annual grass weed, has been increasing in Pacific Northwest (PNW) dryland cereal producing areas. Although rattail fescue is not a new weed species in the PNW, its incidence is expanding rapidly in circumstances where soil disturbances are minimized such as in direct seed systems. Options for effective rattail fescue control in winter wheat cropping systems have not been adequately investigated and need to be developed. Rattail fescue control with herbicide treatments was investigated in imidazolinone-resistant winter wheat using imazamox and other herbicides. Across multiple sites and two growing seasons, crop injury from herbicide treatments was minor to negligible with some exceptions. Treatments containing imazamox or mesosulfuron produced minor, transient winter wheat crop injury at some locations in some years. With the exception of flufenacet applied preemergence (PRE), control of rattail fescue in wheat was variable with single herbicide applications, but improved with sequential herbicide treatments. Rattail fescue biomass was greatly reduced by several treatments especially those containing flufenacet or from sequential herbicide application. Crop yield varied among sites due to growing season precipitation, and in some cases from rattail fescue control or herbicide related crop injury.

Twenty-one grass weeds have evolved resistance to herbicides in Latin America, particularly in rice, soybean, wheat, and orchards. Junglerice, the most widespread and economically important rice weed, evolved resistance to propanil, acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase)-inhibitor herbicides, quinclorac, and imazapyr in Central America, Colombia, and Venezuela. Some junglerice populations are resistant to at least three herbicide modes of action. Other herbicide-resistant (HR) rice weeds are barnyardgrass and gulf cockspur to quinclorac in Brazil, and saramollagrass to ACCase-inhibitor herbicides in Colombia and bispyribac in Venezuela. Populations of weedy rice resistant to imidazolinones are now emerging, most likely originated from gene flow from imidazolinone-resistant rice. Saramollagrass also became resistant to nicosulfuron in corn in Venezuela. Eight species associated with soybean are resistant to ACCase-inhibitor herbicides in Brazil (alexandergrass, goosegrass, and southern crabgrass) and Bolivia (Louisiana cupgrass, itchgrass, sudangrass, and two common wild sorghum species). Four more ACCase-inhibitor–resistant species (hedgehog dogtailgrass, wild oat, rigid ryegrass, and Italian ryegrass) are found in Chile infesting canola and wheat. ACCase-inhibitor–resistant hood canarygrass, littleseed canarygrass, and wild oat are important in wheat in Mexico. Resistance to acetolactate synthase (ALS)-inhibitor herbicides has been reported in itchgrass, goosegrass, and Mexican grass. Italian ryegrass populations resistant to glyphosate have been found in Chile and Brazil. Glyphosate resistance has also evolved in goosegrass in Bolivia and johnsongrass in Argentina. In general, little is done to prevent resistance evolution. An exception is the stewardship programs aiming to prevent gene flow from imidazolinone-resistant rice to weedy rice. Once resistance evolves, HR populations are mostly managed by shifting to herbicides with different modes of action and, in some cases, by slightly modifying agronomic practices. Propanil formulations containing a synergist are used to manage propanil-resistant junglerice. Increased no-till agriculture and planting of glyphosate-resistant crops are likely to select more glyphosate-resistant weeds.

Common dandelion has developed into a troublesome agronomic weed for no-tillage corn and soybean producers in Michigan and throughout the north central region of the United States. Field experiments were conducted on established populations of common dandelion in 2001 to 2002 and 2002 to 2003 to evaluate the effect of preplant and sequential herbicide applications on established populations of common dandelion. Preplant treatments of glyphosate or 2,4-D ester were applied early fall, late fall, early spring, and late spring. For both glyphosate and 2,4-D ester, the fall applications were more effective than the spring applications. Glyphosate at 840 gae/ha was more effective than 2,4-D ester at 1,120 gae/ha at each application timing. A single application of glyphosate or 2,4-D ester applied either in the fall or spring did not provide season-long control of common dandelion. Sequential treatments of glyphosate following preplant applications of either glyphosate or 2,4-D ester provided season-long control of common dandelion.

Diclosulam is registered for residual and postemergence control of several broadleaf weeds and suppression of annual sedges in peanut in the southeastern United States. Many producers apply herbicides and other pesticides simultaneously to increase the spectrum of pest control or to increase efficiency of operations. However, compatibility of coapplication of pesticides is a concern. Field trials were conducted to evaluate the compatibility of diclosulam with other herbicides and fungicides. Horseweed control by diclosulam in combination with glyphosate, sulfosate, or paraquat was compared to combinations of these herbicides with flumioxazin, tribenuron plus thifensulfuron, or 2,4-D. All treatments that contained diclosulam controlled horseweed at least 86%. Broadleaf signalgrass control by clethodim and sethoxydim was not affected by diclosulam; however, large crabgrass control was reduced when graminicides were coapplied with diclosulam. Common ragweed control was reduced when diclosulam was applied with chlorothalonil and pyraclostrobin but not by azoxystrobin or tebuconazole.

In previous research, summer annual weeds were successfully controlled in no-till corn with between-row mowing systems that consisted of soil-residual preemergence herbicides banded over corn rows followed by mowing weeds close to the soil surface one or two times later during the growing season. The objective of this research was to determine whether between-row mowing systems could successfully control both winter annual and summer annual weeds as well as broadcast herbicides perform in no-till corn. In two of three years in Missouri, between-row mowing systems controlled and reduced both winter annual and summer annual weed cover and prevented weeds from reducing corn yields. Corn yields for the following no-till weed management systems equaled the weed-free check: winter annual weed control with between-row mowing plus preplant, banded, postemergence-applied glyphosate at 1.1 kg ae/ha and later summer annual weed control with postplant, banded, preemergence-applied atrazine plus S-metolachlor at 2.2 plus 1.8 kg ai/ha followed by between-row mowing. Winter annual weeds growing between rows were controlled with one mowing, and later summer annual weeds were controlled with either one late or “middle” mowing or two mowings (i.e., early and late). Total herbicide use was reduced 50% (i.e., 25 and 25%, respectively) in no-till corn. Commercially acceptable corn stands were needed for between-row mowing systems to adequately control weeds. In one of three years when corn stands were half of those of the other two years, broadcast herbicides performed better than between-row mowing systems in no-till corn.

A high proportion of viable pollen grains must germinate to study the physiology of pollen growth to reduce the confounding effects of environmental influences on pollen germination. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the nuclear state and develop a suitable medium and culture method for in vitro germination of johnsongrass pollen. Johnsongrass pollen was trinucleate, and in vitro tests for pollen viability using Alexander's stain and a fluorochromatic reaction method (FCR) indicated johnsongrass pollen was viable (92.6 to 98.4%). A factorial treatment arrangement of four concentrations of sucrose, two concentrations of boric acid, and two concentrations of calcium nitrate were used to determine the optimum pollen-germination medium composition in suspension culture, agar culture, and cellophane membrane culture. Germination was highest in a suspension culture with a medium containing 0.3 M sucrose, 2.4 mM boric acid, and 3 mM calcium nitrate. Pollen germination using this medium was 78.9% when anthers were harvested just before anthesis.

Preemergence herbicides are commonly applied to nursery containers for control of annual weeds in the production of ornamental plants. Pine bark is a popular container growing medium because it is inexpensive, drains well, is easy to transport, and supports acceptable nursery crop growth. However, little is understood about leaching of herbicides through pine bark. The downward movement of these herbicides through container media may inhibit root growth in sensitive nursery crops and also reduce herbicidal efficacy. Four experiments were conducted at two different irrigation volumes to evaluate depth of pendimethalin movement in packed columns of pine bark and field soil. After 17.5 cm of water was applied over 7 d, pendimethalin moved downward into the 6 to 9-cm depth in 100% pine bark, whereas no movement was detected below the 0 to 3-cm depth in a Tetotum loam soil, as determined by a large crabgrass bioassay. Doubling the irrigation volume to 35 cm of water applied over 14 d did not significantly increase pendimethalin movement in pine bark or field soil. However, it did decrease pendimethalin persistence in the top 0 to 3-cm depth in pine bark. The pine bark had a higher cation exchange capacity than did the field soil. However, the physical characteristics of pine bark, a large volume of void space and low bulk density, resulted in higher hydraulic conductivity rates than in field soil. These factors may be the principal reasons that pendimethalin leached to a greater extent through pine bark than the field soil.

Arkansas has been the leading state in rice production in the United States for many years. Barnyardgrass is the dominant weed in Arkansas rice. Propanil was the first highly effective herbicide for weed control in rice and has been used in Arkansas since 1959 as the primary herbicide for rice weed control. By 1989, its continual use led to the development of propanil-resistant barnyardgrass, which had spread to 16 of the 38 rice-producing counties in Arkansas by 1992. Arkansas rice growers are dependent on herbicides for the control of weeds in this drill-seeded crop. The residual herbicides thiobencarb, molinate, and pendimethalin mixed with propanil applied early postemergence improved control of propanil-resistant barnyardgrass. But it was quinclorac, introduced in 1992, that became the real replacement treatment for propanil-resistant barnyardgrass. Then in 1999, a barnyardgrass biotype with resistance to both quinclorac and propanil was confirmed in Craighead County, Arkansas. Additionally, problems with quinclorac drift to other crops, especially tomato, led to restrictions on application of quinclorac in Arkansas by 1994. Fortunately, alternative herbicides for barnyardgrass control were developed, and clomazone was introduced in 2000. Clomazone is currently the standard herbicide for annual grasses in rice, including barnyardgrass. Herbicides recently developed for rice allow a broad range of options for a resistance management program, based on rotational and sequential herbicide applications. These include fenoxaprop and cyhalofop (both acetyl-CoA carboxylase [ACCase] inhibitors), bispyribac and penoxsulam (acetolactate synthase [ALS] inhibitors), and imazethapyr and imazamox (also ALS inhibitors for imidazolinone-resistant rice). From a global standpoint, there is considerable evidence that barnyardgrass has the propensity to develop resistance to most of these herbicide groups. Therefore, efforts to manage and monitor for herbicide resistance in this species need to be diligently continued. Research on nonchemical options is in progress utilizing weed-suppressive rice breeding lines to control barnyardgrass.