Model simulations predict that lowering herbicide efficacy by reducing the application rate would slow the rate of enrichment of herbicide-resistant individuals in a weed population, but the resulting increase in density of susceptible plants would reduce crop yield and increase the weed seed bank. A study was conducted at three sites in Saskatchewan, Canada, from 1997 to 2000 to examine the implication of reduced rates of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) inhibitors in a diverse 4-yr crop rotation, in conjunction with variable crop seeding rates, on the enrichment of resistant wild oat in a mixed (resistant and susceptible) population. Main-plot treatments were crop (barley, canola, field pea, and spring wheat), subplot treatments were crop seeding rate (recommended and high), and sub-subplot treatments were ACCase inhibitor rate (0, 0.33, 0.67, and 1.0 times the recommended rate). Herbicide rate frequently interacted with seeding rate in affecting wild oat seedling density, seed return, the viable fraction of the weed seed bank, and crop seed yield. As simulation models predict, reduced herbicide efficacy decreased the proportion of resistant individuals in the population. The high crop seeding rate compensated for a one-third reduction in herbicide rate by limiting total wild oat seed return and by reducing the number of resistant seedlings recruited from the seed bank. The level of resistance in the seed bank can be reduced without increasing the total (resistant plus susceptible) seed bank population by manipulating agronomic practices to increase crop competitiveness against wild oat when ACCase inhibitor rates are reduced to a maximum of two-thirds of that recommended.

Field experiments were conducted at Lacombe, Lethbridge, and Vegreville, Alberta, Canada and Kalispell, MO, over several years to determine the influence of recommended (minimum label) and lower-than-recommended tralkoxydim rates on wild oat seed production, spring wheat yield, and economic return. Wild oat seed production as a function of tralkoxydim rate varied considerably among locations and years. For example, at the recommended rate, wild oat seed production varied from none at both Lethbridge and Vegreville in 1994 to over 800 seeds/m2 at Vegreville in 1995. At 50% of recommended rate, seed production varied from none at Lethbridge in 1994 to over 3,000 seeds/m2 at Vegreville in 1995. In most cases, wheat yield response to tralkoxydim rate was curvilinear. Yields generally increased exponentially as rates increased up to about 40 or 50% of the recommended rate, but then plateaued as rates were increased further. In some cases economic returns tended to plateau or decrease at rates higher than this, but reductions in economic returns at the recommended herbicide rates were, in most cases, relatively slight. In contrast, at Lethbridge in 1993 and 1995 and at Kalispell in 1994 and 1996, yield and economic returns generally increased as herbicide rate increased, and there was an economic disadvantage to reducing the tralkoxydim rate below that recommended. In view of the variable effects on wild oat seed production, and the questionable economic benefit, our study suggests that reducing the rate of tralkoxydim below that recommended may not be without risk. Further studies are necessary to determine the long-term implications of returning relatively large amounts of wild oat seed to the soil seedbank at reduced herbicide rates.

At 14 d after treatment (DAT), glufosinate-resistant CPRS PB-13 rice was injured with early- and late-season glufosinate applications in 1998 and 1999. At 35 DAT, injury was less than 5%. Glufosinate delayed CPRS PB-13 heading by 7 to 15 d and reduced plant height at harvest but did not affect grain moisture and yield compared with the nontreated CPRS PB-13. But yield was reduced compared with conventional Cypress. At 14 DAT, glufosinate-resistant BNGL HC-11/62 rice was injured with early- and late-season applications. Treated BNGL HC-11/62 reached 50% heading 3 to 5 d later than did the nontreated. An application of glufosinate reduced plant height and increased grain moisture compared with the nontreated. Rice treated at the three- to five-leaf, preboot, and boot timings resulted in reduced yields compared with the nontreated BNGL HC-11/62.

Imazamox is an imidazolinone herbicide being developed for weed control in imidazolinone-resistant wheat (IMI-wheat) cultivars and various legume crops. In a series of studies conducted under a range of dryland cropping environments in the Pacific Northwest United States, imazamox applied to IMI-wheat or pea injured barley and canola grown 1 yr after imazamox treatment in low-rainfall, low–soil pH locations of Oregon. Injury was not observed in higher rainfall locations near Pullman, WA. Non–herbicide-resistant wheat planted 1 yr after IMI-wheat treated with imazamox was not injured. Of particular concern for imazamox carryover are low-rainfall areas with low-pH soils. Reduced soil moisture appears to limit imazamox degradation. Imazamox sorption is reduced in low-pH soils, which increases its bioavailability, thereby increasing the potential for injury to rotational crops such as barley, canola, and spring wheat.

At locations in Argentina and the United States, solaria (miniature, portable, plastic greenhouses or a plastic sheet approximately 1 m2) were placed on field soils in autumn or late winter in an attempt to predict summer annual weed densities. Initial emergence of summer annual weeds covered by solaria commenced weeks before that of weeds in exposed seedbeds. Cumulative emergence of many species in solaria reached asymptotes before crops were sown. At asymptotic cumulative emergence, densities of dominant weeds in solaria (common lambsquarters, green foxtail, and large crabgrass) were correlated with weed densities occurring 4 wk after sowing, the typical time for making postemergence weed control decisions. These results indicate that solaria may supplement seedbank-sampling techniques for predicting weed densities in crops.

Greenhouse studies were conducted to evaluate halosulfuron tolerance of several squash and cucumber cultivars commonly grown in Georgia. There was an inverse linear relationship between squash plant biomass and rate of halosulfuron (r2 = 0.70 to 0.92). With the exception of ‘Supersett’, the slopes from regression of all squash cultivars were equivalent. The estimated amount of halosulfuron required to reduce growth by 20%, based on regression, ranged from 8.2 to 45 g ai/ha (for Supersett and ‘Dixie’, respectively). Squash plant height was also reduced by halosulfuron, though plants began to recover from the injury by the end of the study. There was no effect of halosulfuron rate on cucumber plant biomass or height. Cucumber cultivars appeared to be more tolerant to halosulfuron than did squash cultivars.

Corn injury from isoxaflutole has been reported in sites across the corn belt, and variation in tolerance to isoxaflutole has been observed among corn hybrids. Greenhouse trials were conducted to study the variation and the inheritance of isoxaflutole tolerance in corn. Inbred lines from two families were treated with isoxaflutole applied preemergence, at four times the typical use rate, to study plant response. Plant height of corn inbreds treated with isoxaflutole compared with the untreated control ranged from 47 to 96% among eight lines within the B73 family and from 54 to 97% among six lines within the C103 family. One tolerant and one sensitive inbred line were selected from each family. The inbred lines were crossed in the field to produce four F1 hybrids. The four hybrids were treated with isoxaflutole in the greenhouse, and the tolerance of each hybrid was compared with the parent inbred lines. Data indicate that sensitivity to isoxaflutole is a heritable trait that is mediated by nuclear genes. Tolerance of corn hybrids to isoxaflutole can be predicted from the response of the parent inbreds.

Common ragweed is an annual weed problem after winter wheat harvest in southwest Michigan. Although an interseeded cover crop of red clover is known to reduce weed populations in winter wheat stubble, the most effective rates and cultivars for weed suppression under Michigan conditions have not been identified. Three red clover cultivars were planted in March at three seeding rates in established winter wheat; after wheat harvest, a section of each plot was mowed to mimic forage harvest of clover. The experiment was repeated in 2 yr. Mowing significantly reduced common ragweed biomass each year. All cultivars and seeding rates were equally effective at significantly reducing common ragweed biomass in each year, despite the variation among years, cultivars, seeding rates, and mowing treatments in production of clover biomass.

Field trials were conducted in Georgia and South Carolina in 2000 and 2001 to evaluate the effects of glyphosate, diflubenzuron, and boron combinations on crop injury and soybean yield. No interactions among glyphosate, diflubenzuron, and boron were observed. Both glyphosate and boron caused significant foliar injury (chlorosis and leaf burn) ranging from 7 to 10% in one of three locations. Diflubenzuron did not cause significant soybean injury at any location. Soybean injury symptoms observed in these experiments were transient and did not negatively affect yield.

Two field experiments were conducted to evaluate the reduction of torpedograss canopy by multiple split applications of quinclorac applied postemergence (POST) to bermudagrass golf course roughs in Florida. In one experiment, quinclorac treatments were reapplied for a second year to the same plots, followed by biomass harvest, to evaluate the reduction of torpedograss rhizomes. Quinclorac sprayed at 1.68 kg/ha/yr visually reduced torpedograss canopy to a varying extent, depending on the number of split applications. The most effective treatment, 0.42 kg/ha quinclorac applied four times each year for 2 yr, reduced torpedograss canopy to 10% compared with 86% torpedograss canopy in the untreated plots, and reduced torpedograss dry weight to 1,570 kg/ha compared with 8,010 kg/ha in the untreated plots. After reapplication for 2 yr with the commercially labeled treatment, quinclorac at 0.84 kg/ha applied twice per year, torpedograss canopy was reduced to 45% and dry weight to 4,640 kg/ha. Visual evaluation of canopy was too optimistic in representing the herbicidal control of torpedograss by quinclorac because torpedograss regrew from rhizomes, and canopy was a relatively small part of the plant. In plots not chemically treated, pachymorph rhizomes were 63%, leptomorph rhizomes were 24%, and leaves were only 13% of the total dry weight of torpedograss.

Soybean producers of South Carolina were surveyed in 2000 through mail and on-farm visits to determine which production practices limit seed yields the most. Production systems have direct implications on weed management practices, difficulties, and future problems. When asked to describe two extension and research focus areas that would improve current soybean production, the number one response was improved weed control strategies. Fifty-seven percent of the respondents indicated that weeds were the pest that most limited soybean yield. Sicklepod, Palmer amaranth, morningglory species, common cocklebur, yellow nutsedge, and Texas panicum were considered the most problematic weeds. More than half the producers (68%) used glyphosate-resistant soybean, with one-half of these farmers producing soybean in row widths > 51 cm. Of the farmers who grew conventional soybean, 10% used narrow rows (≤ 51 cm), whereas 22% used wide rows (> 51 cm). Only 27% of the farmers who planted glyphosate-resistant soybean used a soil-applied herbicide. Forty-three percent of farmers based the need for a postemergence herbicide on weed size, 21% used no repeatable method, 21% relied on days after soybean emergence, 11% depended on soybean size or groundcover, and only 4% used a combination of weed density and size. Thirty-five percent of the farmers did not rotate soybean with another crop. In fields where soybean parasitic nematodes reduced soybean growth or caused plant death, late-season weed infestations were often exacerbated, especially in the absence of nonresidual herbicides. Specific reasons for difficulty in managing weeds in soybean may include a diverse weed spectrum, which is difficult to control with a single herbicide, the use of wide-row soybean, the lack of crop rotation, the prevalence of nematodes that directly affect crop development and, in turn, weed management, the lack of an appropriate criterion for timing postemergence herbicide applications, and the greater attention paid to production of more valuable crops. Educational efforts addressing weed management problems and association of such problems with other production practices are needed if weed management is to be improved and weed-induced yield losses minimized.

Over a decade ago, the Weed Science Society of America sponsored a symposium on the then emerging technology of herbicide-tolerant crops (HTCs). The symposium and subsequent proceedings addressed potential benefits and concerns about that new technology to control weeds. Technological, biological, and ethical questions were addressed that were likely to emerge from the widespread adoption of HTCs. It was suggested at that time that if such questions were answered, HTC development would proceed on a more solid foundation, whereas continued uncertainty and criticism would probably result if the questions were not answered. We now review developments in HTC technology. Questions and concerns posed one decade ago are still pertinent, but current knowledge is still insufficient to address them. Adoption of HTC has risen dramatically since their commercial introduction, but there is still no evidence of associated production cost reductions or enhanced yields